Thomas Aquinas Commentary 1 Corinthians 12

After discussing the three sacraments of Baptism, Matrimony, and the Eucharist, the Apostle begins to talk about things related to the reality signified in the sacraments. This reality is twofold: one is signified and contained—namely, the grace that is immediately conferred by the sacrament. The other is signified but not contained—namely, the glory of the resurrection, which is expected in the end. He therefore first deals with the gifts of grace, and second, with the glory of the resurrection (1 Corinthians 15). Regarding the first point, he deals with the charismatic graces; second, he places charity, which pertains to sanctifying grace, above all of these (1 Corinthians 13); third, he compares the charismatic graces to one another (1 Corinthians 14).

Concerning the first point, he does two things. First, he explains his main intention, recalling his earlier statement that “about other things… I will give directions when I come.” And this is what he says now: Now concerning spiritual gifts—that is, the gifts of grace that come from the Holy Spirit—I do not want you to be ignorant, brothers. As Seneca says in his book On Benefits, “It is the worst form of ingratitude to be ignorant of benefits received.” Therefore, so that a person might not be ungrateful to God, they should not be ignorant of spiritual gifts: “We have received… the Spirit who is from God, that we might understand the gifts bestowed on us by God” (1 Corinthians 2:12); “Therefore my people go into exile for want of knowledge” (Isaiah 5:13)—that is, knowledge of spiritual things.

Second, when he says, You know that when you were Gentiles, he develops his point. First, he shows the need for spiritual graces; second, he describes the distribution of those graces (1 Corinthians 12:4). The need for something is best understood from its absence. Hence, regarding the first point, he does two things: first, he shows the loss they suffered before they received grace; second, he concludes with the need for grace (1 Corinthians 12:3).

First, therefore, he says: You know by experience that when you were heathen—that is, living as heathen without yet having received grace through Baptism: “We ourselves are Jews by birth and not Gentile sinners” (Galatians 2:15); “the Gentiles… walk in the futility of their minds” (Ephesians 4:17). You were led, as if with a ready and constant mind, as Jeremiah says: “Everyone turns to his own course, like a horse plunging into battle” (Jeremiah 8:6); “Their feet run to evil” (Proverbs 1:16).

You were led to mute idols, that is, to adore and worship them, as it says in Psalm 115:5: “They have mouths, but do not speak.” Their inability to speak is particularly stressed because speech is the characteristic effect of knowledge. This shows that idols do not understand and, as a consequence, have nothing divine about them if they are mute. And this happened as you were led—that is, without any resistance.

For they were led, either drawn by the beauty of the idols—hence it says in one of Jerome’s letters: “You will see in Babylon gods of gold and silver; see that fear does not overtake you before them.” Or they were led by the command of a ruler, as it says in Daniel 3:1 that Nebuchadnezzar compelled people to worship a golden statue. In 2 Maccabees it is stated that some were led to the sacrifice by bitter necessity on the king’s birthday. Or they were led at the instigation of demons, who especially desire to have divine worship paid to them: “All these I will give you, if you will fall down and worship me” (Matthew 4:9). Therefore, they went to worship idols just as they were led, without resistance, as Proverbs 7:22 says of the foolish youth: “All at once he follows her, as an ox is led to the slaughter.” This shows that before receiving grace, a person quickly runs into sin without resistance.

He makes special mention of the sin of idolatry for three reasons. First, because it is a very serious sin to introduce another god, just as one would sin very seriously against a king by introducing another king into his kingdom. Hence, it says in Job 31:26-28: “if I have looked at the sun when it shone, or the moon moving in splendor… and my mouth has kissed my hand”—that is, as a worshiper of the sun and moon—“this also would be an iniquity… a denial of God above.” Second, because from the sin of idolatry all other sins arise, according to Wisdom 14:27: “For the worship of unspeakable idols is the beginning and cause and end of every evil.” Third, because this sin was common among the heathen and was not considered a serious offense; hence it says in Psalm 96:5: “For all the gods of the peoples are worthless idols.”

It should be noted that some have said that a person in a state of mortal sin cannot, without grace, be freed from the sin he is under, because the forgiveness of sins is brought about only by grace, as it says in Romans 3:24: “they are justified by his grace as a gift.” But, they claim, he can keep himself from mortal sin without grace, through free will. This position, however, does not seem to be true.

First, because a person cannot keep from mortal sin except by observing all the precepts of the law, since no one sins mortally except by transgressing a precept of the law. And so, it would follow that someone could observe all the precepts without grace—which is the Pelagian heresy. Second, because no one can have charity without grace, through which God is loved above all things, as it says in Romans 5:5: “God’s love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us.” But no one can avoid all sins unless he loves God above all things, just as that which is loved less is more easily despised. Therefore, it could happen that a person lacking grace might abstain from sin for a time, until he encounters something for which he is willing to despise God’s command, and by which he is led into sin. It is significant that the Apostle says, as you were led.

Then when he says, Therefore, he concludes by describing two effects of grace: the first is that it enables one to abstain from sin; the second is that it enables one to do good works (1 Corinthians 12:3b).

First, therefore, he says: From the fact that you ran so quickly into sin when you were without grace, I want you to understand that this would not have happened if you had possessed grace, for no one speaking in the Spirit of God ever says, “Jesus is accursed!”—that is, blasphemes Jesus. As it is written, “every spirit that does not confess Jesus is not from God” (1 John 4:3). It should be noted that he said above that the most serious sin is blasphemy, which is avoided through grace; therefore, other lesser sins are also avoided.

By the phrase “Jesus is accursed” (or “anathema to Jesus”), any mortal sin can be understood. For “anathema” signifies separation. It is derived from “ana,” meaning “up,” and “thesis,” meaning “a placement,” as if to say, “set up” or “placed on high,” because in ancient times, things set apart from common use were hung up in temples or public places. But every mortal sin separates a person from Jesus, as it says in Isaiah 59:2: “your iniquities have made a separation between you and your God.” Therefore, whoever sins mortally says in his heart or with his mouth, “Anathema”—that is, “Separation from Jesus.” Thus, no one speaking in the Spirit of God says “anathema to Jesus,” because no one sins mortally through the Spirit of God, for as it says in Wisdom 1:5: “a holy and disciplined spirit will flee from deceit.”

But based on this, it would seem that whoever has the Holy Spirit cannot sin mortally. Furthermore, it says in 1 John 3:9: “No one born of God makes a practice of sinning, for God’s seed abides in him.” The answer is that as far as the Spirit of God is concerned, a person does not commit sin but is instead drawn away from sin. But he can sin through a defect of the human will, which resists the Holy Spirit, as it says in Acts 7:51: “You always resist the Holy Spirit.” For the indwelling Holy Spirit does not completely take away the ability to sin from the free will in this life. Therefore, it is significant that the Apostle did not say, “No one having the Holy Spirit,” but no one speaking in the Spirit of God.

Then when he says, and no one, he mentions the second effect of grace: that without it, a person cannot perform a good work. He says, therefore: and no one can say “Jesus is Lord” except in the Holy Spirit. But against this seems to be the fact that a person is brought into the kingdom of heaven by the Holy Spirit, as it says in Psalm 143:10: “Let your good spirit lead me on a level path!” The Lord, however, says, “Not everyone who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter the kingdom of heaven” (Matthew 7:21). Therefore, not everyone who says, “Lord Jesus,” says it in the Holy Spirit.

The answer is that saying something “in the Holy Spirit” can be understood in two ways. First, it can mean being moved by the Holy Spirit without possessing the Spirit. For the Holy Spirit moves the hearts of certain people to speak, even though He does not dwell in them. As it says in John 11:51, in predicting the benefit of the Lord’s death, Caiaphas did not speak of his own accord but through the Spirit of prophecy. Balaam also predicted many true things while moved by the Holy Spirit, as it says in Numbers 23-24, although he did not possess the Spirit. According to this, therefore, it must be understood that no one can say anything true unless moved by the Holy Spirit, who is the Spirit of truth, of whom it is said in John 16:13: “When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth.” Hence, Ambrose says in a gloss, “Every truth, no matter by whom it is spoken, is from the Holy Spirit.” This applies especially to matters of faith, which are received by a special revelation of the Holy Spirit. Among these truths is the fact that Jesus is Lord of all. Hence it says in Acts 2:36: “Let all the house of Israel therefore know for certain that God has made him both Lord and Christ, this Jesus whom you crucified.”

Second, someone can speak in the Holy Spirit by being both moved and possessed by the Spirit. According to this understanding, what is said here can be confirmed, but in such a way that “to speak” refers not only to the mouth but also to the heart and to one’s actions. For something is said with the heart, as in Psalm 14:1: “The fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God.’” And something is said by deed, insofar as a person’s external work reveals his thought. Therefore, no one can say, “Jesus is Lord,” except by having the Holy Spirit, in such a way that he confesses this not only with his mouth, but also reveres Him as Lord in his heart and obeys Him as Lord in his actions.

Therefore, from the preceding words, we can consider three things about grace.

1. Without it a person cannot avoid sin, as it says in Psalm 94:17: “If the LORD had not been my help, my soul would soon have lived in the land of silence.”
2. Through it sin is avoided, as it says in 1 John 3:9: “No one born of God makes a practice of sinning.”
3. Without it a person cannot do good, as it says in John 15:9: “Apart from me you can do nothing.”

Then when he says, Now there are varieties of gifts, he begins to distinguish the charismatic graces: first, he distinguishes them in general; second, he explains each one in particular (1 Corinthians 12:7).

In the things conferred by the grace of the Holy Spirit, three aspects must be considered. First is a person’s ability to work; second is the authority; and third is the carrying out of both. The ability is received through the gift of grace, for example, by prophecy, the power to work miracles, or something of that kind. The authority is received through some ministry, for example, through the apostolate or something similar. Execution pertains to the actual work performed. First, therefore, he distinguishes the graces; second, the ministries; third, the operations.

Regarding the first, he shows the need for grace. This grace, however, does not come in its totality to everyone, but only to Christ, to whom the Spirit was given without measure, as it says in John 3:34. But for others, there are varieties of graces, because some abound in one grace and others in another. For just as in a natural body the head has all the senses while the other members do not, so in the Church, Christ alone has all graces, which are then distributed among the other members. This is signified in Genesis 2:12, where it says that a river (that is, of graces) flowed out to water the garden, and from there it divided and became four rivers. And in Matthew 25:15 it says that “to one he gave five talents, to another two, to another one.” And although the gifts of grace possessed by different people are diverse, they do not come from different authors, as the Gentiles believed, who attributed wisdom to Minerva, speech to Mercury, and so on for other gifts. To exclude this idea, he adds, but the same Spirit—that is, the Holy Spirit, who is the author of all graces: “one body and one Spirit” (Ephesians 4:4). The Spirit is “one and manifold” : one in substance, but manifold in graces.

Then he mentions the varieties of service, saying: And there are varieties of service. This means different ministries and offices are required to govern the Church. For the leaders of the Church are called servants, as in 1 Corinthians 4:1: “This is how one should regard us, as servants of Christ.” It contributes to the beauty and perfection of the Church that there are diverse ministries within it, which are signified by the different orders of service that the queen of Sheba admired in Solomon’s house (1 Kings 3:5). Yet all serve one Lord; hence, he adds, but the same Lord. “Yet for us there is one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things” (1 Corinthians 8:6).

Then he mentions the varieties of activities, saying: and there are varieties of activities, through which one accomplishes good in oneself, just as through ministries one serves a neighbor. “Man goes out to his work” (Psalms 104:23), that is, work proper to himself. “He has distinguished them and made their ways diverse” ()—that is, their activities. All of these come from one source. Hence, he adds, but it is the same God who empowers them all, as the first cause, producing all actions. But so that the other causes do not seem to be superfluous, he adds, in every one, because the first cause works through secondary causes: “O LORD… you have accomplished all our works for us” (Isaiah 26:12). It should be noted that the Apostle very fittingly attributes gifts to the Spirit, who is love, because it is from love that someone is freely given a ministry from the Lord, to whom he ministers, and performs works for God, as for the first moving cause. And what he says, “Spirit,” can be referred to the person of the Holy Spirit; what he calls “Lord” to the person of the Son; and what he calls “God” to the person of the Father. Alternatively, these three can all be attributed to the Holy Spirit, who is Lord and God.

After setting forth in general the distinction of graces, ministries, and operations, the Apostle now explains in detail what he had said. He addresses first, the division of graces, and second, the division of operations (in verse 28). Regarding the division of graces, he does two things: first, he presents the distinction of graces in general, and second, he uses an analogy (in verse 12). In presenting the distinction of graces, he does three things: first, he states the condition of the charismatic graces; second, he distinguishes them (in verse 8); and third, he describes their action (in verse 11).

First, therefore, he says that since there are divisions of graces, a gift is given "to each," which designates their subject. For just as there is no member in the body that does not share in some way in the sensation and movement from the head, so there is no one in the Church who does not participate in some grace from the Spirit. As it says in Matthew 25:15, He gave to each according to his ability, and in Ephesians 4:7, Grace was given to each of us according to the measure of Christ’s gift.

The purpose of these charismatic graces is for the manifestation of the Spirit. It is a property of sanctifying grace that the Holy Spirit dwells within a person through it. This indwelling, however, is not a property of the charismatic graces; their function is only that the Holy Spirit is manifested through them, just as the inner movement of the heart is revealed through the voice. Hence, it is said in John 3:8, You hear his voice, and in Psalm 98:2, The LORD has made known his salvation.

The Holy Spirit is manifested by these kinds of graces in two ways. In one way, He is manifested as dwelling in the Church by teaching and sanctifying it. This occurs, for example, when a sinner, in whom the Holy Spirit does not dwell, works miracles to show that the faith of the Church which he professes is true. As Hebrews 2:4 says, while God also bore witness by signs and wonders and various miracles and by gifts of the Holy Spirit. In another way, the Holy Spirit is manifested by such charismatic graces as dwelling within the person to whom such graces are granted. Thus, it says in Acts 6:8 that Stephen, filled with grace, worked wonders and many signs, and that they had chosen him because he was filled with the Holy Spirit. In this way, such graces are granted to the saints.

And so that such a manifestation does not seem pointless, he adds that it is given for the common good. This designates the purpose of these gifts, which is fulfilled either when the true doctrine of the Church is proven or when someone’s holiness is presented as an example. Hence, he says later in 1 Corinthians 14:12, strive to excel in building up the church, and earlier in 1 Corinthians 10:33, not seeking my own advantage, but that of many, that they may be saved.

Then, when he says, To one is given..., he presents the distinction among the graces, which, as has been said, are given for the common good. Therefore, this distinction must be understood in the sense that through these gifts, one can bring about the salvation of others. Indeed, a person cannot do this by working internally, for that belongs to God alone, but only by persuading externally.

For this persuasion, three things are required: first, the ability to persuade; second, the ability to confirm the persuasion; and third, the ability to present the persuasion intelligibly. The ability to persuade requires that a person have skill with conclusions and certainty about principles regarding those matters about which he must persuade.

In matters that pertain to salvation, some conclusions are primary, namely, divine matters. To this pertains wisdom, which is the knowledge of divine things, as Augustine says in Book 13 of On the Trinity. Regarding this, it is said that to one is given through the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, so that he can persuade others in matters pertaining to the knowledge of divine things. As it says in Luke 21:15, I will give you a mouth and wisdom, which none of your adversaries will be able to withstand, and in 1 Corinthians 2:6, we speak wisdom among the mature.

Secondary conclusions are those that pertain to the knowledge of created things, which Augustine calls scientific knowledge. Regarding this, he adds, and to another the utterance of knowledge according to the same Spirit, so that one might reveal the things of God through created things. This knowledge is what defends and strengthens the holy faith, not merely some curiosity found in human knowledge, as Augustine says. As it is written, He gave him knowledge of holy things , and, The riches of salvation are wisdom and knowledge (Isaiah 33:6).

Yet it should be noted that wisdom and knowledge are also numbered among the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, as stated in Isaiah 11:2. Therefore, it is significant that the Apostle includes among the charismatic graces not wisdom and knowledge themselves, but the utterance of wisdom and knowledge, which pertains to the ability to persuade others by speech about matters of wisdom and knowledge. Now, the principles of the doctrine of salvation are the articles of faith. Regarding this, he adds, to another faith by the same Spirit. This is not to be understood as the virtue of faith, because that is common to all members of Christ, according to Hebrews 11:6: Without faith it is impossible to please God. Rather, it is understood as the utterance of faith, meaning that a person is able to correctly propose matters of faith, or it refers to the exceptional certainty of faith that someone possesses, as in Matthew 15:28: Woman, great is your faith.

However, matters pertaining to the teaching of salvation cannot be confirmed or proven by reason, because they transcend human reason. As Sirach 3:23 says, Matters too great for human wisdom have been shown. They are confirmed or proven by a divine sign. Thus, Moses, when he was about to be sent to the people of Israel, received a sign from God to confirm what he said on God’s behalf, as is clear in Exodus 4:1–7. This is just as a royal seal confirms that something is the command of a king.

A sign from God is based, on the one hand, on something that only God can do, such as a miracle. The Apostle distinguishes two kinds of these. First, he says, to another gifts of healing by the one Spirit, which is the ability to heal someone’s infirmity. Through these, a person is persuaded not only by the greatness of the deed but also by the benefit received, as it says in Jeremiah 17:14, Heal me, O LORD, and I shall be healed. Second, he says, to another the working of miracles. A person is persuaded by these solely because of the greatness of the deed, for example, when the sea was divided (as we read in Exodus 14:21) or when the sun and moon stood still in the heavens (as we read in Joshua 10:13). As it says in Galatians 3:5, Who has given you the Spirit and works miracles among you?

On the other hand, a divine sign can be based on something that only God can know, such as future contingent events. As it says in Isaiah 41:23, Tell us what is to come hereafter, that we may know that you are gods. Regarding this, he says, to another prophecy. This is a divine revelation that declares future events with unchangeable truth. As it says in Joel 2:28, I will pour out my Spirit on all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy. Another example is the knowledge of the human heart, as in Jeremiah 17:9: The heart is deceitful above all things and desperately corrupt; who can understand it? I, the LORD, search the mind and try the heart. Regarding this, he says, to another the ability to distinguish between spirits. This is the ability for a person to discern by what spirit someone is moved to speak or act; for example, whether by the spirit of charity or the spirit of envy. As it says in 1 John 4:1, Do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God.

The ability to speak persuasively also requires being able to speak intelligibly to others. This can be hindered in two ways. First, by a diversity of languages. The remedy for this is signified when he says, to another various kinds of tongues. This is the ability to speak in different languages so that one will be understood by all, as it says of the apostles in Acts 2:4 that they spoke in various languages. Second, understanding can be hindered by the obscurity of a scripture being quoted. The remedy for this is what he mentions next: to another the interpretation of speeches. This refers to the interpretation of difficult passages of Scripture. As it says in Daniel 5:16, I have heard that you can give interpretations and solve problems, and in Genesis 40:8, Do not interpretations belong to God?

Then, when he says, All these are empowered by one and the same Spirit, he identifies the author of these graces. In this, he refutes three errors.

1. The first is the error of the Gentiles, who attributed different gifts to different gods. Against this, he says that all these are accomplished by one and the same Spirit, as in Ephesians 4:4: one body and one Spirit.
2. Second is the error of those who attributed only a general providence to God and assigned the distinctions of particular things to secondary causes alone. Against this, he adds, apportioning to each one individually as he wills, and as it says in Sirach 33:11, In the fullness of his knowledge the Lord distinguished them.
3. Third, he refutes the error of those who attributed the diversity of graces to fate or to human merit, rather than solely to the divine will. This was the error of the Macedonians, who said that the Holy Spirit is the servant of the Father and the Son. He refutes this by saying, as he wills, just as it says in John 3:8, The Spirit breathes where he wills.

Having laid out the distinction among spiritual gifts, the Apostle now explains it using the analogy of a natural body. He first presents the analogy in general, and then in more detail (beginning in verse 14). Regarding the first part, he presents the analogy itself and then its application (verse 12b).

Concerning the analogy, it should be noted that, as stated in Aristotle’s Metaphysics V, something can be called “one in itself” in three ways. First, by indivisibility, like a single unit or a point. This kind of unity completely excludes not only actual multiplicity but potential multiplicity as well. Second, something is called one by reason of continuity, like a line or a surface. Such unity excludes actual multiplicity but not potential. Third, something is one by its wholeness, which excludes neither actual nor potential multiplicity, just as a house is one thing composed of various stones and types of wood.

In the same way, the body of a person or any other animal is one because its completeness is made up of various members, which serve as diverse instruments for the soul. This is why the soul is called the animating principle of an organic body—that is, a body made up of various organs. The Apostle, therefore, first proposes that the unity of the body does not exclude a multitude of members, saying, As the body is one and has many members. As he says elsewhere, In one body we have many members (Romans 12:4). Likewise, he proposes that a multitude of members does not take away the unity of the body, adding, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, which is made complete by all of them. Hence, it says in Job 10:11, You clothed me with skin and flesh and knit me together with bones and sinews.

Then, when he says, so it is with Christ, the application of the analogy begins. First, he applies the analogy, saying, So it is with Christ. He is one, as it says above, Our one Lord Jesus through whom are all things (1 Corinthians 8:6). Yet He has many and diverse members—namely, all the faithful—as it says in Romans 12:5: Though many we are one body in Christ.

Secondly, he presents the basis for this application, which includes a twofold reason for unity and distinction. One basis for unity is the Holy Spirit, as it says in Ephesians 4:4: One body and one Spirit. We receive a double benefit by the power of the Holy Spirit. First, we are reborn through Him, as it says in John 3:5: Unless a man is born again of water and the Holy Spirit. Therefore, he says, For by one Spirit—that is, by the power of the one Holy Spirit—we were all baptized into one body. All of us who are members of Christ are baptized into the unity of the Church, which is the body of Christ, as it says in Ephesians 1:22-23: He has made him head over all things for the Church, which is his body. And in Galatians 3:27: As many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ.

Secondly, by the Holy Spirit we are refreshed for our salvation. Hence he adds, and all were made to drink of one Spirit, meaning by the power of the one Holy Spirit. This drink can be understood in two ways. It can refer to the inward refreshment that the Holy Spirit offers to the human heart, extinguishing the thirst for carnal and sinful desires. As Sirach 15:3 says, He will give him the water of salutary wisdom to drink. And in John 7:38: Out of his heart shall flow rivers of living water. Alternatively, it can be understood as a sacramental drink, which is consecrated by the Spirit: All drank the same spiritual drink (1 Corinthians 10:4).

He then introduces two aspects of diversity: one is a matter of background, when he says, Jews or Gentiles; the other is a matter of status, when he says, slaves or free. No diversity of this kind hinders the unity of the body of Christ. Hence it says in Galatians 3:28: There is neither Jew or Greek, there is neither slave nor free; for you are all one in Christ Jesus.

Then, when he says, For the body is not one member but many, he explains the analogy in detail. First, he describes the condition of a natural body and its members; secondly, he applies this to the mystical body of Christ (verse 27). In regard to the first point, he does three things:

1. He states his intention.
2. He explains with examples (verse 15).
3. He proves his point by showing the absurd conclusions that would otherwise follow.

First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that all of us have been baptized into one mystical body, which is analogous to a natural body. For the natural body of a person is not one member but many, because its perfection is not found in one member alone but is composed of many, which must necessarily serve the various capacities and actions of the soul. As it says in Romans 12:4-5: For as in one body we have many members and all the members do not have the same function, so we, though many, are one body in Christ.

Then, when he says, If the foot should say, he clarifies his point by using certain members as examples. He begins with the members involved in motion, mentioning two: the foot, as the less honorable member in that it treads the earth and carries the weight of the entire body; and the hand, as the nobler member, inasmuch as it is the "organ of organs." This is what he says: If the foot should say, ‘Because I am not a hand, I do not belong to the body,’ that would not make it any less a part of the body. This is to say that the perfection of the body does not consist in one member, even if it is more noble; its perfection requires even the less honorable ones. In the Church, the members involved in motion represent those given to the active life. The feet are the subjects, about whom it says in Ezekiel 1:7, Their legs were straight. The hands denote the leaders, through whom others are directed; hence in Song of Solomon 5:14 it says, His hands are rounded gold, filled with hyacinth. In the Church, not only the hands (leaders) but also the feet (subjects) are necessary. As it says in Proverbs 14:28, In a multitude of people is the glory of a king.

Secondly, he uses as examples the members that serve knowledge, mentioning the eye, which serves sight, and the ear, which serves hearing. These two senses are the special servants of human knowledge: sight for discovery, because it reveals many differences among things, and hearing for doctrine, which is presented through speech. The more noble of these senses is sight, because it is more spiritual and reveals more things; as a result, the eye is more noble than the ear. He says, therefore, And if the ear should say, ‘Because I am not an eye, I do not belong to the body,’ that would not make it any less a part of the body. In the Church, the members who serve knowledge represent those who apply themselves to the contemplative life. Among them are teachers, like eyes, who investigate truth. Hence it says in Song of Solomon 5:12, His eyes are like doves beside springs of water. The ears signify disciples who receive the truth by hearing their masters. As it says in Matthew 13:9, He that has ears to hear, let him hear. In the Church, not only teachers but also disciples are necessary. As it says in Job 29:11, When the ear heard, it called me blessed.

Then, when he says, If the whole body were an eye, he proves his point by leading to two absurd conclusions: the first is the removal of necessary parts from the body, and the second is the removal of the body's completeness (verse 19).

Regarding the first, he presents the absurd conclusion that follows, saying, If the whole body were the eye, which is a nobler member, where would be the hearing? That is, where would the organ of hearing be? It is as if to say: What if all in the Church were masters? Hence it says in James 3:1, Let not many of you become teachers, my brethren. Again, if the whole body were an ear, where would be the sense of smell? By this can be understood those in the Church who, even though they are not capable of words of wisdom, nevertheless perceive some of its signs from afar, like a scent. Hence in Song of Solomon 1:3–4 it says, We run after the odor of your anointing oils.

Secondly, he asserts the contrary truth: that neither sight nor hearing should be lacking. He says, But as it is, God arranged the members in the body, each one of them, as he chose. For even if the distinction of the members is a work of nature, nature acts as an instrument of divine providence. Therefore, he assigns the first cause of the arrangement of the members when he says, God arranged the organs in the body... as he willed. The first cause of the arrangement of things is the divine will, as it says in Psalm 111:2: Great are the works of the Lord. So, too, in the Church He arranged various offices and diverse states according to His will. As it says in Ephesians 1:11, this is according to the purpose of him who accomplishes all things according to the counsel of his will.

Then, when he says, If all were a single organ, he comes to another absurd conclusion, which is the lack of the body's completeness. He first posits this absurdity, saying, if all were a single organ, where would the body be? That is, where would the completeness of the body be? It is as if to say: It would not exist. Thus, if the entire Church were of one state and rank, it would destroy the perfection and beauty of the Church, which is described in Psalm 45:14 as being adorned with many-colored robes. Secondly, he asserts the contrary truth, saying, As it is, there are many parts, yet one body, which is made complete by all the parts. Thus, the Church is composed of diverse orders: Terrible as an army with banners (Song of Solomon 6:10).

Then, when he says, The eye cannot say to the hand, he compares the members with one another. He does so first regarding their necessity, secondly regarding the care shown to them (verse 23), and thirdly regarding their mutual concern (verse 26). Regarding the first point, he states that all members are necessary, even those that are less honorable, and then presents a comparison of their necessity (verse 22).

First, he shows the need for different members by using a twofold distinction. He begins with the difference between members involved in knowledge and those involved in action. He says, the eye, which serves knowledge and signifies contemplatives, cannot say to the hand, which serves action and signifies those in the active life, ‘I have no need of you.’ For contemplatives need to be sustained by the labors of those in the active life. Hence, it says in Luke 10:39-40 that while Mary sat at the feet of Jesus listening to His words, Martha was busy with much serving. Secondly, he shows the same point regarding the difference between leaders, signified by the head, and subjects, signified by the feet. He adds, Nor again the head—that is, the leaders, according to 1 Samuel 15:17, You have become the head of the tribes of Israel—to the feet—that is, the subjects—‘I have no need of you,’ because as it says in Proverbs 14:28, In a multitude of people is the glory of the king.

Then, when he says, On the contrary, he compares various members in regard to their necessity, saying that the members of the body that seem weaker are the more necessary, such as the internal organs. So, too, in the Church, without the functions performed by certain lowly persons, such as farmers and others of that kind, this present life could not continue. Life can, however, be lived without certain more excellent persons dedicated to contemplation and wisdom, who serve the Church by making it more beautiful and well-ordered. For something is called necessary if it is useful for an end. But the noblest things are not considered useful; rather, they are to be sought as ends in themselves. Therefore, it says in Job 31:39, If I have eaten its yield without payment, and caused the death of its owners.

Then, when he says, and those parts of the body that we think less honorable, he compares the members regarding external adornment. First, he mentions the different things applied to different members; secondly, he assigns the cause of this difference (verse 24b).

The external adornment applied to members pertains to two things: honor, such as decorative items like necklaces and earrings, and modesty, such as clothing like trousers and similar garments. Regarding the first, he says, and those parts of the body we think less honorable we invest with greater honor—that is, more ornamentation. For example, earrings are hung from the ears, but nothing is added to the eyes, while shoes adorned with pictures and precious stones are worn on the feet: How graceful are your feet in sandals, O queenly maiden! (Song of Solomon 7:1). The hands, however, are kept bare. Likewise, in the Church, the more imperfect receive more consolations, which the more perfect do not need. As it says in Isaiah 40:11, He will gather the lambs in his arms, he will carry them in his bosom. And in 1 Peter 3:7, Husbands, bestow honor on the woman as the weaker sex.

He continues with the ornaments of modesty, saying, And our unpresentable parts are treated with greater modesty, namely, by human diligence. Some members are called "unpresentable" not because of any sinfulness, but because of the disobedience of the genital parts as a result of original sin, or because they are directed to a base use, like the members that serve to emit waste. To these, greater modesty is applied by covering them more carefully, which the members designed for nobler uses do not require. Hence he adds, which our more presentable parts do not require, meaning external covering; no veil is used to cover the face. Likewise, in the Church, those who are at fault in any matter must be admonished and guarded, as it says in Sirach 42:11, Keep strict watch over a headstrong daughter. And in Galatians 6:1, If a man is overtaken in any trespass, you who are spiritual should restore him in a spirit of gentleness. But those who are without guilt do not need this. It should be noted that he mentioned a threefold difficulty in the members: unpresentability, dishonor, and weakness. The first refers to guilt in the members of the Church; the second to a servile condition; the third to a state of imperfection.

Then, when he says, But God has so composed the body, he gives the cause for the care mentioned above. First, he assigns the primary efficient cause. For although people take care of the members in this way, it proceeds from the divine plan. He says, God has so composed the body, giving greater honor to the part that lacked it. People do this by virtue of a certain divine instinct, as it says in Job 33:16, Then he opens the ears of men, and by discipline instructs them.

Secondly, he proposes the final cause, or purpose, saying, that there may be no division in the body. Division would certainly follow if no help were given where needed. This is avoided as long as the peace of the Church is maintained by giving each person what is necessary. As was said above, Let all of you agree and let there be no dissensions among you (1 Corinthians 1:10). In the natural body, there would be division if the proper proportion of the members were removed.

Then, when he says, but that the members may have the same care for one another, he presents a comparison of the members regarding their mutual concern. First, he proposes it, saying that the members not only work for one another but are also concerned for one another, keeping them within the unity of the body. This is clearly evident in the natural body, for each member has a natural inclination to protect the other members from harm. Similarly, believers, who are members of the mystical body, show concern for one another, according to Sirach 17:14: He gave commandment to each of them concerning his neighbor. And Galatians 6:2: Carry one another’s burdens.

Secondly, he specifies this concern, first in regard to suffering, where it is more obvious. He says, If one member suffers, all suffer together. This is obvious in the natural body. If one member is ailing, the whole body begins to feel sick, and spirits and humors flock to the ailing part to help it. The same should happen among Christ’s faithful, so that one suffers along with the misfortune of another, according to Job 30:25: I used to weep over one who was afflicted, and my soul grieved. Secondly, he specifies this concern in good things, adding, if one member is honored, all rejoice together. This is also noticeable in the natural body, in which the health of one member helps the other members. So, too, it should be in the members of the Church, that each should take joy in the welfare of another. I am glad and rejoice with you all (Philippians 2:17); Rejoice with those who rejoice; weep with those who weep (Romans 12:15).

Then, when he says, Now you are the body of Christ, he applies the analogy to his proposition. First, regarding the unity of the body, he says, Now you, who are assembled in the unity of faith, are the body of Christ, according to Ephesians 1:22-23: He made him the head over all things for the church, which is his body. Secondly, regarding the distinction of members, he adds, and individually members of it. This phrase can be understood in three ways:

1. You are members depending on the member Christ, who is called a member by virtue of His human nature, through which He is especially called the head of the Church. According to His divinity, He does not have the nature of a member or a part, since He is the common good of the entire universe.
2. You are members depending on a member, inasmuch as it was through me that you were acquired for Christ, as was said above: I became your father in Christ Jesus through the gospel (1 Corinthians 4:15).
3. It could be explained to mean that the distinction and sequence of members is designated, so that the sense is this: you are members of a member, meaning you are distinguished and arranged in such a way that you relate to one another as one member to another.

Then, when he says, And God has appointed in the church, he discusses the distinction of ministries. He does three things: first, he lays out the order of ministries; secondly, he explains their difference (verse 29); thirdly, he guides their desire for various ministries and gifts (verse 31).

The great ministers in the Church are the apostles, whose office pertains to three things: the authority to govern the faithful, which properly belongs to the apostolic office; the faculty of teaching; and the power to work miracles to confirm their doctrine. Concerning these three it says in Luke 9:1-2: And he called the twelve together and gave them power and authority over all demons and to cure diseases, and he sent them out to preach the kingdom of God. In all ordered powers, the chief function is reserved for the supreme power, while others are shared with lower powers. The power to work miracles is ordered toward teaching, to confirm the faith, according to Mark 16:20: The Lord confirmed the message by the signs that attended it. Teaching, in turn, is directed toward governing the people as its end, according to Jeremiah 3:15: I will give you shepherds after my own heart, who will feed you with knowledge and understanding.

Therefore, the first degree among ecclesiastical ministries is that of the apostles, to whom the government of the Church specially belongs. For this reason he says, And God has appointed in the church—that is, set in an orderly fashion—first apostles, to whose rule He entrusted the Church, according to Luke 22:29: As my Father appointed a kingdom for me, so do I appoint for you. For this reason, Revelation 21:14 says that on the foundations of the city were written the names of the twelve apostles. They also obtained a primacy in spiritual gifts among the rest of the faithful, as it says in Romans 8:23: We ourselves who have the first fruits of the Spirit.

Although the office of teaching belongs primarily to the apostles, to whom it was said, Go therefore and make disciples of all nations (Matthew 28:19), others are allowed to share in this office. Some of them receive revelations from God directly and are called prophets, while others instruct the people in matters revealed to others and are called teachers. Hence he adds, second prophets, who also existed in the Old Testament. For the statement in Matthew 11:13, The law and the prophets prophesied until John, is understood of prophets who foretold the coming of Christ. Then he adds, third teachers; as it says in Acts 13:1, In the church at Antioch there were prophets and teachers. Likewise, the grace of miracles was communicated to others, although it was originally given to the apostles. Hence he adds, then workers of miracles, who work miracles affecting the elements of the world: He who... works miracles among you (Galatians 3:5). As for miracles done on human bodies, he says, then gifts of healing, according to what is said in Luke 9:1: He gave them power... to cure diseases.

Then, when he says, helpers, he mentions the minor or secondary ministries. Some of these are directed to the governing of the Church, which we have said pertains to the apostolic dignity, while others pertain to teaching. To the rule of the Church belong general services, performed by those who help the major leaders in the universal rule of the Church, as archdeacons help bishops. (Compare to Philippians 4:3: Help these women, for they have labored side by side with me... with Clement and the rest of my fellow workers.) In particular, he mentions administrators, such as parish priests, to whom is entrusted the care of certain people: Where there is no guidance, a people falls (Proverbs 11:14). Pertaining secondarily to teaching is what he calls various kinds of tongues, referring to those who speak marvelously in various languages (Acts 2:4), so that the teaching of the gospel is not hindered by a variety of dialects. To remove hindrances to teaching that could arise from obscure speech, he mentions the interpretation of tongues: He who speaks in a tongue should pray for the power to interpret (1 Corinthians 14:13).

Then, when he asks, Are all apostles? Are all prophets? Are all teachers? he clarifies the distinction among these ministries. Are all in the Church apostles? As if to say: No! This shows the variety of these ministries: In the fullness of his knowledge the Lord distinguished them .

Finally, when he says, But earnestly desire the higher gifts, he corrects their desire for the spiritual gifts mentioned. He says that since there are many gifts of the Holy Spirit, you should earnestly desire the higher gifts—that is, have a stronger desire for the better gifts, for example, prophecy over the gift of tongues, as will be said below (1 Corinthians 14:1). As it says, Test everything; hold fast what is good (1 Thessalonians 5:21). And so that their desires may not come to rest in these gifts, he adds, And I will show you a still more excellent way—namely, the way of charity, by which one goes to God more directly. I will run in the way of your commandments (Psalms 119:32); This is the way, walk in it (Isaiah 30:21).