Thomas Aquinas Commentary 2 Corinthians 5

After commending the ministry of the New Testament for its dignity and use, the Apostle now commends it for its reward. Although he had already said something about the reward, it was partial and incomplete, so now he discusses it at greater length. He does three things: first, he discusses the reward; second, he discusses the preparation for and reception of the reward (v. 9); and third, he discusses the cause of both the preparation and the expected reward (v. 18). Regarding the first point, he mentions the expected reward and then expresses a desire for it (v. 2).

Since the awaited reward is of inestimable heavenly glory, he says, For we know. A Gloss [Lombard] suggests this means God works a weight of glory in us because this glory will be not only in our souls but also in our bodies. The Apostle says, For we know, meaning we are certain—because we already possess it in hope—that if our earthly tent, which is the body, is destroyed, we have a building from God. As has been said, a person can be called a "mind," since that is the most important part of a human being. This mind relates to the body as a person relates to a house. Just as a person living in a house is not destroyed when the house is, but continues to exist, so also when the body is destroyed, the mind—that is, the rational soul—is not destroyed but continues to exist.

The body, therefore, is called the earthly tent we live in, as in Job 4:19: Those who dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, who are crushed before the moth. When the Apostle says this tent is destroyed, he means it is dissolved. We know, he says, that we have a building from God, prepared by God. This building is a house not made with hands—meaning it is not a work of man or nature, but an incorruptible body that we will one day assume. It is "not made with hands" because the incorruptibility of our bodies results from divine action alone, as Philippians 3:21 says: He will change our lowly body to be like his glorious body. It is eternal in the heavens, meaning it is a house prepared for us from all eternity, as in Isaiah 33:20 (Vulgate), A tabernacle that shall never be destroyed in heaven, and Matthew 5:12, Your reward shall be great in heaven. This exchange—receiving a heavenly home for an earthly one—is what Job desired when he said, All the days of my service I would wait, till my release should come (Job 14:14).

This explanation is based on a Gloss, but it does not align with the Apostle’s meaning or with what comes before and after this passage. The Apostle is dealing with one continuous subject and would not interject another topic here. Therefore, let us examine what the Apostle truly means. He wants to show that the saints are right to endure the tribulations that destroy this present life, because doing so results in obtaining glory immediately—not a glorified body, as the Gloss suggests.

So he says: the reason we endure these things is that we know—we hold it as certain—that if the earthly tent we live in (the body) is destroyed (corrupted by death), we have at once, not in hope but in reality, a better house. This is a building, a house not made with hands, which is heavenly glory, not a glorified body. Of this house, John 14:2 says, In my Father’s house are many rooms. This house is from God and not made with hands because eternal glory is God Himself, as it says in Psalm 31:2: Be a rock of refuge for me, a strong fortress to save me. It is eternal in the literal sense because it is the eternal God. It is in the heavens, meaning on high, because as soon as the body is dead, the holy soul obtains this glory in reality, not just in hope. For even before the body is dissolved, we already have this home in hope.

Thus, the reward of the saints is wonderful and desirable because it is heavenly glory. The Apostle connects the desire of the saints with this reward, saying, Here indeed we groan, and long to put on our heavenly dwelling. In this section, he does three things. First, he expresses the desire of grace for its reward. Second, he shows that the desire of grace is held back by the desire of nature (v. 4). Third, he shows that the desire of grace overcomes the desire of nature (v. 6).

The desire of grace is fervent: Here indeed we groan, and long to put on our heavenly dwelling. It is as if he is saying: this is the real proof that we have a house not made with hands, because if the desire of nature is not in vain, much less is the desire of grace. Therefore, since we have a most fervent desire of grace for heavenly glory, it cannot be in vain. This is what he means when he says, we groan; that is, groaning, we desire with our soul's desire because we are delayed, as in Psalm 120:5: Woe is me that I sojourn in Meshech. We groan, I say, and long to put on our dwelling, which is the enjoyment of glory that is from heaven, or heavenly. It is called a dwelling because the saints dwell in that glory as their place of consolation, as in Matthew 25:21: Enter into the joy of your Lord. By saying to put on, he is stating that the heavenly home he spoke of is not something separate from a person, but something that inheres in them. For a person is not said to "put on" a house but rather clothes; they inhabit a house. In this way, the Apostle shows that the desire is for something that inheres (because it is "put on") and also for something that contains and exceeds (because it is "inhabited").

But because he did not merely say "put on" (indui), but "put on over" (superindui), he gives the reason for this when he says, so that by putting it on we may not be found naked. It is as if he is saying: if the soul were to put on a heavenly dwelling in such a way that the earthly dwelling were not taken off—that is, if our body were not dissolved by death—then attaining that heavenly dwelling would be to be put on over. But because it is necessary to be stripped of the earthly dwelling to put on the heavenly one, it cannot be a putting on over, but simply a "putting on." Hence he says, so that by putting it on we may not be found naked. It is as if he means: we would indeed be "putting on over" if we were found clothed and not naked. For a naked person is not said to be "clothed over," but simply "clothed."

However, a Gloss [Lombard] explains it as a spiritual garment, saying: "We desire to be clothed over, and this will indeed happen, but only on the condition that we are found clothed with virtues, and not naked and lacking them." Of this clothing, Colossians 3:12 says: Put on then, as God’s chosen ones, holy and beloved, compassion, kindness, lowliness, meekness, and patience. This implies that no one will attain this glory unless they possess the virtues. But this explanation does not seem to align with the Apostle’s intention.

Thus, the desire of grace burns for its reward, but it is held back by the desire of nature. The Apostle shows this when he says, For while we are still in this tent, we sigh with anxiety. In this, he first shows the condition of our natural desire, and second, he shows that even this condition is from God (v. 5).

The condition of this desire is natural, and it delays the desire of grace because we would prefer to be found clothed and not naked. That is, we would prefer that the soul attain glory without the body being dissolved by death. The reason for this is that the soul has a natural desire to be united to the body; otherwise, death would not be a punishment. This is what he says: For while we are still in this tent—meaning, while we live in this mortal body, as in 2 Peter 1:14: Since I know that the putting off of my body will be soon—we sigh. This sighing is inward, in the heart, not an outward cry, as in Isaiah 59:11: We moan and moan like doves. We are burdened because it is hard to think of death, and it is against our desire that we cannot attain glory without the body being put off.

This is so contrary to our natural desire that, as Augustine says, not even old age could remove the fear of death from Peter. And so he says, not that we would be unclothed of our earthly tent, but that we would be further clothed with super-heavenly glory—or, according to a Gloss, with a glorified body. But because it might seem unfitting for the body to be both corruptible by its nature (if it had not been dissolved) and glorified, the Apostle mentions how he would like this to happen, saying, so that what is mortal may be swallowed up by life. It is as if he is saying: we do not desire to be "clothed over" in such a way that the body remains mortal, but in a way that glory removes all corruption from the body without its prior dissolution. Hence he says, so that what is mortal—that is, the very corruption of the body—may be swallowed up by life, which is glory. As it is written, Death is swallowed up in victory (1 Corinthians 15:54).

Here the author reveals the source of the supernatural desire for a heavenly dwelling. The cause of our natural desire to not be unclothed is that the soul is naturally united to the body, and the body to the soul. But the desire to be clothed with a heavenly dwelling is not from nature but from God. Therefore, he says, the one who has prepared us for this very thing is God.

It is as if to say: we wish to put on the heavenly dwelling, but in such a way that we do not lose the earthly one. And yet it is God who works in us the desire to be clothed over in this way: “God is at work in you, both to will and to work for his good pleasure” (Philippians 2:13). The reason for this is that a desire suited to the end of a given nature follows from that nature, just as something heavy naturally tends downward and seeks to rest there. But if a thing desires something above its nature, it is not moved toward that end naturally, but by something else that is also above its nature.

Now, it is evident that to enjoy eternal glory and to see God in His essence, although appropriate for a rational creature, is above its nature. Therefore, the rational creature is not moved to desire this by nature, but by God Himself, who prepared us for this very thing.

He adds how this is accomplished, saying, who has given us the Spirit as a guarantee, or pledge. Regarding this, it should be noted that God produces both natural and supernatural desires in us. He produces natural desires when He gives us a natural spirit suited to human nature: “God breathed into his nostrils the breath of life” (Genesis 2:7). But He gives supernatural desires when He infuses in us the supernatural spirit, that is, the Holy Spirit.

Therefore, he says, who has given us the Spirit as a guarantee—that is, the Holy Spirit, who produces in us the certainty of this inheritance for which we long: “You were sealed with the Holy Spirit, which is the guarantee of our inheritance” (Ephesians 1:13–14). He says “pledge” because a pledge has as much value as the thing for which it is given. However, it differs from the thing itself in that the thing is possessed with a fuller right when it is finally had than the pledge is. The thing itself is possessed as one's own, but the pledge is held as an assurance that the thing will be possessed.

So it is with the Holy Spirit, because the Holy Spirit has as much value as heavenly glory. But there is a difference in the way He is possessed, because now we have Him as a guarantee of obtaining that glory, but in heaven we will have Him as something we fully possess. For then we will have Him perfectly, but now we have Him imperfectly. In this way, therefore, the desire of grace is deferred by a natural desire.

But is it hindered? No, for the desire of grace conquers. Therefore, he says, so we are always of good courage, knowing that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord. It is as if to say: there are two desires in the saints, one by which they desire a heavenly dwelling, and the other by which they do not wish to be unclothed. If these were compatible, they would not be contrary, and one would not be delayed by the other. But the Apostle shows that they are incompatible and that one must prevail over the other. In this regard, he does three things:

1. He shows the incompatibility of these desires.
2. He provides a proof (verse 7).
3. He shows which of them conquers (verse 8).

He shows their incompatibility when he says, so we are always of good courage, knowing that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord. Properly speaking, to dare is to involve oneself in dangers of death and not to yield through fear. Although the saints naturally fear death, they still dare to face the dangers of death and not yield to that fear: “The righteous are bold as a lion” (Proverbs 28:1); “In his days he feared not the prince” (Sirach 48:13, Vulgate).

This knowledge strengthens our boldness not to fear death for Christ: that while we are at home in the body, we are away—that is, far away—from God: “Woe to me because my stay has been prolonged” (Psalms 120:5, Vulgate). We are absent because we are outside our native land, which is God. Otherwise, we would not be described as away from Him. And this boldness is not from our nature, but from His grace.

That we are absent from the Lord is proven when he says, for we walk by faith, not by sight. That is, we pass through this life in faith, because faith deals with things not seen. The word of faith is like a lamp with which the road is lit in this life: “Your word is a lamp to my feet, and a light for my steps” (Psalms 119:105). But in heaven there will be no such lamp, because the radiance of God—God Himself—has enlightened it (Revelation 21:23). Therefore, we will then see Him by sight, that is, in His essence.

But he says, we walk by faith, because faith is concerned with things unseen: “Faith is the substance of things hoped for; the conviction of things not seen” (Hebrews 11:1). As long as the soul is united to the body, it does not see God in His essence: “No man shall see me and live” (Exodus 33:20). Therefore, because we assent by believing the things we do not see, we are said to walk by faith and not by sight. Thus, the incompatibility of the two desires is clear, because we cannot, while in this body, be clothed over with the heavenly dwelling. The proof of this is that we walk by faith.

He follows with the victory of the one desire—namely, the desire of grace—when he says, we are of good courage and would rather be away from the body. This should be read as follows: knowing what was said above (that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord), we dare and have a good will. He says two things. One implies the reluctance in his will, a reluctance caused by the fear of death, for where there is no fear, there is no daring. The fear of death springs from our nature’s desire, but the daring comes from the desire of grace. Therefore, he says, we dare.

The other implies an imperfection of the soul in desiring, because unless we desired properly, the fear of death would not be overcome, since it is so natural. Therefore, it is necessary not only to dare, but also to have a good will—that is, to will gladly. According to Aristotle, in the act of courage, joy is not required for the perfection of the virtue as it is in other virtues; it is enough not to be sad. Yet because the courage of the saints is more perfect, they are not only not sad at the dangers of death, but they rejoice: “My desire is to depart and be with Christ” (Philippians 1:23). But what do we dare? To be away from the body—that is, to be separated from it by its dissolution, which is contrary to the desire of nature—and to be at home with the Lord—that is, to walk by sight, which is the desire of grace. He who said in Psalm 42:2, “My soul thirsts for God, for the living God,” desired this.

Note that he concludes with the same two things he proposed at the beginning: that if the earthly tent we live in is destroyed (which is the same as being away from the body), we have a building from God, not made with human hands, in heaven (which is the same as being at home with the Lord).

These words refute the error of those who say that the souls of dead saints are not brought immediately after death into the vision of God and into His presence, but that they reside in mansions until the day of judgment. The saints would have dared and desired in vain to be away from the body if they would not be present to God when separated from it. Therefore, the answer is that the saints see the essence of God immediately after death and dwell in a heavenly mansion. Thus, it is clear that the reward the saints await is inestimable.

He follows this with an account of the preparation for the reward, which is accomplished by the struggle against temptations and by practicing good works (verse 9). The saints are prepared for this reward in three ways:

1. By pleasing God.
2. By helping their neighbor (verse 11).
3. By removing carnal affections from themselves (verse 16).

They please God by resisting evil. Therefore he says, so, because our whole desire is to be present with God, we contend—that is, we make a great effort, we strive, and we fight against the temptations of the devil, the flesh, and the world: “Strive to enter by the narrow gate” (Luke 13:24). We strive to please Him, namely God, with whom we desire to be present, whether we are at home or away. For unless we strive to please Him in this life, while we are absent, we will not be able to please Him or be present with Him in the next life: “There was one who pleased God and was loved by him” .

Then, when he says, For we must all appear, he adds the reason why the saints strive to please God. This reason is taken from a consideration of the future judgment, when we must all be made manifest. Here the Apostle mentions five characteristics of the future judgment.

1. The first is its universality, because no one will be exempt from that judgment. Therefore he says, we must all—that is, all people, good and bad, great and small: “So each of us shall give account of himself to God” (Romans 14:12); “And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened” (Revelation 20:12).

   But there are two objections to this. First, it does not seem that unbelievers will come to judgment, for “one who does not believe has already been judged” (John 3:18). Secondly, some will be there as judges: “You who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel” (Matthew 19:28). Therefore, not all will be before the tribunal to be judged. I answer that there are two aspects to a judgment. The first is a discussion of merits, and in this respect, not all will be judged. Those who have completely renounced Satan and all his pomps, and have clung to Christ in all things, will not be judged, because they are gods already. Those who did not adhere to Christ in any way, neither by faith nor by works, will also not need discussion. But those who have something in common with Christ, namely faith, but in other things have withdrawn from Him through evil works and wicked desires, will be examined concerning the things they committed against Christ. In this respect, only sinful Christians will be revealed before the judgment seat of Christ. The second aspect of judgment is the pronouncement of the sentence, and in this respect, all will be made manifest.

   But it seems that children will be exempt, because he says, so that each one may receive good or evil according to what he has done in the body. Children, however, have done nothing in the body. This is answered by a gloss from Lombard: they will not be judged for what they did by themselves, but for what they did through others, when they believed or did not believe, were baptized or not baptized through them. Or, they will be condemned for the sin of their first parents.

2. Secondly, he mentions the certainty of the judgment. In human judgments, many can be deceived, being judged evil when they are good, or good when they are evil. The reason for this is that hearts are not revealed. But in that judgment, there will be absolutely perfect certainty, because there will be a revelation of hearts. Therefore, he says, be manifested: “Therefore do not pronounce judgment before the time, before the Lord comes, who will bring to light the things now hidden in darkness and will disclose the purposes of the heart” (1 Corinthians 4:5).

3. Thirdly, he tells why the judgment will be necessary: because no one will be able to escape that judgment, either by another’s intercession or by defiance: “That you may know that there is a judgment” (Job 19:29); “For God will bring every deed into judgment, with every secret thing, whether good or evil” (Ecclesiastes 12:14).

4. Fourthly, he reveals the authority of the judge. Hence, he says, before the judgment seat, or tribunal, of Christ, who will come to judge humanity in the same form in which He was judged by humanity. By appearing in human form, He may be seen by both the good and the evil, for the wicked cannot see the glory of God: “And has given him authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of man” (John 5:27). The word “tribunal” implies judicial power and is taken from an ancient Roman custom of choosing three tribunes of the people, whose function was to pass judgment on the excesses of consuls and senators. Their places were called tribunals.

5. Fifthly, he speaks of the justice of the judge, because there will be rewards or punishments according to one’s merits. Therefore, he says, so that each one may receive good or evil, according to what he has done: “He will render to each one according to his works” (Romans 2:6). He says, in the body, referring not only to things accomplished with bodily movement, but also to those accomplished by the mind; otherwise, unbelievers would not be punished. Therefore, when he says, in the body, it is understood to mean things performed while one lived in the body.

Having shown how the saints prepare for the reward of eternal glory by pleasing God, the Apostle now shows how they prepare for this by helping their neighbor. In this regard, he does two things. First, he shows his own concern for the salvation of his neighbor; second, he explains the reason for this concern (2 Corinthians 5:14). Regarding the first point, he does three things. First, he mentions the care he takes for his neighbor’s salvation by persuading them; second, he excludes a false opinion (2 Corinthians 5:12); third, he shows that even in his teaching methods, he intends his neighbor’s welfare (2 Corinthians 5:13). Regarding the first of these, he does two things. First, he mentions his zeal to benefit his neighbor; second, he explains this (2 Corinthians 5:11b).

He says, therefore, that we must all be revealed before the tribunal of Christ, and this consideration leads people to fear the judgment. For this reason, he says, therefore, knowing the fear of the Lord, we persuade men. This means we persuade people to fear and believe, knowing how purely the Lord Jesus should be feared. “When I consider, I am in dread of him” (Job 23:15); “Who would not fear you, O King of the nations?” (Jeremiah 10:7); “But the LORD of hosts, him you shall regard as holy; let him be your fear, and let him be your dread” (Isaiah 8:13).

Because someone might argue that he persuades people not from a good conscience but for his own gain, he shows this is false by appealing to two witnesses. The first is the witness of God, as he says, but what we are is known to God. This means he is speaking from the fear of God, for God sees the intention of our heart: “The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately corrupt; who can understand it? I the LORD search the mind and try the heart” (Jeremiah 17:9–10); “For he himself knew what was in man” (John 2:25). The second witness is their own consciences; therefore he says, I hope it is known also to your conscience. I truly hope this, because I have shown myself to you in such a way that you might know we are approved and might firmly hold to this, even if you do not admit it verbally: “Commending ourselves to every man’s conscience in the sight of God” (2 Corinthians 4:2).

Then, because they might think the Apostle said this to commend himself, he corrects this false assumption, saying, we are not commending ourselves to you again. In other words, we are not saying this for our own commendation, as if trying to commend ourselves again. For previously (in chapter three and in 1 Corinthians 3) he said certain things for his own commendation: “For it is not the man who commends himself that is accepted, but the man whom the Lord commends” (2 Corinthians 10:18). Instead, we say this for your benefit, but giving you cause to be proud of us, that is, giving you a reason to glory. For the false apostles boasted proudly, saying that they were taught by the apostles who were from the Lord—namely, by Peter and James, who were pillars of the faith. They did this while discrediting the Apostle, as if he had not been with the Lord Jesus, and wishing to destroy his teaching. Therefore, he said this so that the Corinthians might also have something in which to glory against those false apostles—namely, the grace given to the Apostle—in order to refute them and not be led astray by them. He continues, so that you may be able to answer those, that is, to speak against them or to those who reprimand you.

He speaks of those, I say, who pride themselves on a man’s position and not on his heart [who glory in face and not in heart]. This can be explained in three ways.

1. They glory in appearance, that is, in the external observances of the Law, because that is what they taught, and not in heart, that is, in the virtue of Christ, which is in the heart. This is unlike the Apostle, who, in the power of the cross of Christ, said: “Far be it from me to glory except in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Galatians 6:14).
2. They glory in appearance, that is, in the presence of others, as hypocrites do, and not in heart, that is, in the testimony of conscience, as the Apostle says above: “For our boast is this, the testimony of our conscience” (2 Corinthians 1:12).
3. They glory in appearance because they pretend to have outward qualities that they do not feel in their hearts. For example, they claimed to have been instructed by the apostles and to be following their doctrine, which, on the contrary, they were trying to destroy.

It is clear, therefore, how the Apostle worked for the salvation of his neighbor through his teaching.

Now we must see how he worked for their salvation even in the way he taught. He says, for if we are beside ourselves, it is for God; if we are in our right mind [if we are sober], it is for you. This is explained in two ways. In one way, the Apostle calls himself “beside himself” when he speaks by commending himself, and “sober” when he is not speaking of his own commendation. According to this, he is saying: no matter how we teach, it is either for the honor of God or the benefit of his neighbor. For if we are beside ourselves, that is, if we commend ourselves, it is for God, that is, for the honor of God or for observing God’s judgment. If we are in our right mind [if we are sober], that is, not saying great things about ourselves, this is for you, that is, for your benefit.

But there is another and more literal sense. I say that we give you an opportunity to glory in us because in everything we do, and even in the way we do it, we intend your good. It should be noted that the apostles were as intermediaries between God and the people: “While I stood between the Lord and you at that time” (Deuteronomy 5:5). Therefore, they were required to draw from God whatever they poured out upon the people. It was necessary that they sometimes raise themselves to God by contemplation to obtain heavenly things, and sometimes adapt themselves to the people to deliver what they had received from God. All of this was for their benefit.

Hence he says, for if we are beside ourselves, that is, raised to the state of receiving gifts of grace in order to be united to God, which is done by means of temporal things: “I said in my vision” (Psalms 116:11, Vulgate); as Dionysius says, “Divine love causes ecstasy.” If we are in our right mind, that is, if we adapt ourselves to you by delivering God’s precepts, it is for you, that is, for your benefit. This sobriety is not opposed to drunkenness from wine, which brings wars on earth, but to that inebriation which is from the Holy Spirit and draws people to divine things. It is about this that Song of Solomon says: “Eat, O friends, and drink: drink deeply, O lovers!” (Song of Solomon 5:1). For that sobriety is for the benefit of our neighbor, but the inebriation is for the love of God. Such a descent was signified by the descent of the angels on the ladder which Jacob saw (Genesis 28:12): “You will see heaven opened, and the angels of God ascending and descending upon the Son of man” (John 1:51).

Then when he says, For the love of Christ, the Apostle indicates the cause of his concern, namely, the love of Christ. In this regard, he does two things. First, he shows that he is compelled by the love of Christ to work for the salvation of his neighbor; secondly, he indicates the source from which the love of Christ originates (2 Corinthians 5:14b).

He says, therefore: I say that whether we are beside ourselves for God, or sober for you, it is for your benefit. The reason for this is that the love of Christ controls [presses] us to do this. He says, “presses,” because it is the same as “stimulates.” It is as if to say: the love of God, like a goad, spurs us to do what love commands, namely, to work for the salvation of our neighbor: “Those who are led... by the Spirit of God are sons of God” (Romans 8:14); “Its flashes are flashes of fire” (Song of Solomon 8:6).

Then he indicates the cause of his concern, namely, the love of Christ, adding, because we are convinced that one has died for all. First, he assigns the reason for this; second, he explains it (2 Corinthians 5:15).

He says, therefore: I say that we do all things for you because the love of Christ controls us, because we are convinced that one, namely Christ, has died for all. Therefore we ourselves should so live for your benefit that we are even dead to ourselves—that is, we care nothing about ourselves, but about Christ and the things of Christ: “God shows his love for us” (Romans 5:8); “Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, that you should follow in his steps” (1 Peter 2:21).

What follows from this, namely, therefore all have died, is explained in three ways.

1. It is as if to say that all have died the death of sin in Adam. For it would not have been necessary for Christ to suffer for all if all were not dead with the death of Adam’s sin: “For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive” (1 Corinthians 15:22).
2. It is as if to say: all have died to the old life. For Christ died to remove sins; therefore, all should die to the old life of sin and live the life of righteousness: “The death he died he died to sin, once for all, but the life he lives he lives to God. So you also must consider yourselves dead to sin and alive to God in Christ Jesus” (Romans 6:10–11).
3. More literally, all have died means that each person should regard himself as dead to himself: “You have died and your life is hid with Christ in God” (Colossians 3:3).

He explains this interpretation when he says, and he died for all. He died that we might live for Christ (see 2 Corinthians 5:15; 1 Thessalonians 5:10; 1 John 4:9). He continues, that those who live might live—with a natural life—no longer for themselves, that is, solely for themselves and their own good, but for him who for their sake died and was raised, namely, for Christ. This means a person should direct his whole life to the service and honor of Christ: “It is no longer I who live, but Christ who lives in me” (Galatians 2:20); “Forget not the kindness of your surety, for he has given his life for you” (Sirach 29:20, Vulgate).

The reason for this is that everyone who acts bases his actions on the goal. Therefore, if Christ is the goal of our life, we should regulate our life not according to our will but according to Christ’s will. For this is what Christ himself said: “For I have come down from heaven, not to do my own will, but the will of him who sent me” (John 6:38).

But note that he says two things: that Christ died and that he rose for us. In this, two things are required of us. Since he died for us, we, too, should die to ourselves, that is, deny ourselves for him: “If any man would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me” (Luke 9:23). This is the same as saying: let him die to himself. But because Christ rose for us, we should so die to sin, to the old life, and to ourselves that we might rise to the new life of Christ: “So that as Christ was raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, we too might walk in newness of life” (Romans 6:4). This is why the Lord not only said, “Let him deny himself and take up his cross,” but added, “and follow me,” namely, in newness of life, by advancing in the virtues: “They shall go from virtue to virtue” (Psalms 84:7, Vulgate).

After showing how the saints prepare for receiving heavenly glory by pleasing God and helping their neighbor, the Apostle then shows how they also prepare by giving up worldly affection. In this regard, he does three things:

1. He mentions the putting off of worldly affection.
2. He addresses a potential objection (2 Corinthians 5:16).
3. He arrives at his intended conclusion (2 Corinthians 5:17).

The Apostle says that because he is so certain of eternal glory, From now on, therefore, we regard no one according to the flesh (2 Corinthians 5:16). It should be noted here that the phrase “according to the flesh” is a qualification that can be explained in two main ways, depending on its connection to the other words in the sentence.

First, “according to the flesh” can be connected to the words “no one.” In this case, a gloss explains it as, “we regard (that is, approve of) no one who is ‘according to the flesh’ (that is, living in a worldly manner).” This interpretation offers three possibilities for the meaning of “flesh”:

1. It can mean living in a worldly or sinful way, as it is used in Romans 8:9: You are not in the flesh, but in the Spirit.
2. It can mean living according to the worldly observances of the Law, as in Philippians 3:4, which speaks of those who have confidence in the flesh (that is, in the worldly observances of the Law).
3. It can mean the corruption of the flesh. In this sense, we do not consider anyone according to their corruptible flesh. For although the faithful still have corruptible flesh, in hope they already possess an incorruptible body. They do not see themselves from the perspective of having corruptible flesh now, but of one day having an incorruptible body. This is how “flesh” is used in 1 Corinthians 15:50: Flesh and blood shall not inherit the kingdom of God.

Alternatively, “according to the flesh” can be connected with the verb “we regard.” In that case, the meaning is this: because we should not live for ourselves but for Him who died for us, we no longer regard anyone “according to the flesh”—that is, we do not evaluate anyone based on worldly affection or see them in that light. This is how Deuteronomy 33:9 should be understood: Who said of his father and mother, ‘I regard them not’; he disowned his brothers, and ignored his children. In this second main explanation, “according to the flesh” describes the one who is knowing, whereas in the first explanation, it describes the object being known.

Because someone might object that Paul at least knew Christ according to the flesh, he preempts this by saying, even though we once regarded Christ from a human point of view, we regard him thus no longer. On this point, it should be noted that Manichaeus used these words to support his error, for he claimed that Christ did not have a true body and was not born from the seed of David.

As Augustine explains in his book Against Faustus, if anyone challenged Manichaeus with the Apostle’s words in Romans 1:3, who was descended from David according to the flesh, or 1 Timothy 3:16, Great indeed, we confess, is the mystery of our religion, which was manifested in the flesh, or 2 Timothy 2:8, Remember Jesus Christ, risen from the dead, descended from David, as preached in my gospel, he would answer that the Apostle initially believed Christ was of David’s seed and had a true body, but later corrected this opinion. This, he claimed, is why Paul said, even though we once regarded Christ from a human point of view, we regard him thus no longer—meaning, “we have changed our opinion and no longer believe that.”

But Augustine refutes this in two ways:

1. First, no one says “we regarded” when speaking of something they falsely believed; instead, they would say “we were of the opinion.” Therefore, when the Apostle uses the words “we regarded,” it does not seem that he is admitting to a past falsehood.
2. Second, the Apostle says, we regard no one from a human point of view. If what Manichaeus claimed were true, it would imply the Apostle believed no one had a true body, which is obviously false. Therefore, the argument of Manichaeus is false.

Consequently, the passage must be explained differently, in accordance with the truth. This can be done in two ways. First, “flesh” can be taken to mean the corruption of the flesh, as in 1 Corinthians 15:50: Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable. The meaning, then, would be: if we once regarded Christ from a human point of view (that is, as having corruptible flesh before His passion), we no longer regard Him as such, because He no longer has corruptible flesh. As it says in Romans 6:9, Christ being raised from the dead will never die again; death no longer has dominion over him.

Another way, following a gloss by Lombard, is to refer the clause even though we once regarded Christ from a human point of view to Paul’s condition before his conversion, and what follows, we regard him thus no longer, to his state after conversion. The meaning would then be: “Both I and other Jews once (that is, before my conversion) knew Christ according to the flesh (that is, according to our legalistic understanding of the Messiah). But now (that is, after I was converted), we no longer regard Him this way, for that opinion has ceased.” Indeed, I now believe that He is true God and should not be worshiped with worldly observances. Hence, Paul said to the Galatians, If you receive circumcision, Christ will be of no advantage to you (Galatians 5:2).

There is yet another explanation, in which the Apostle makes the statement even though we once regarded Christ from a human point of view on behalf of all of Christ’s apostles. This interpretation corresponds to the earlier explanation of we regard no one from a human point of view, where the focus was on the knower’s affection. In this regard, it should be noted that when Augustine explains John 16:7, It is to your advantage that I go away, he says the Lord’s reason, For if I do not go away, the Counselor will not come to you, was given because the disciples were attached to Him as one is attached to a friend in the flesh. As a result, they could not be elevated to a spiritual love, which enables one to endure many things even for a person who is absent.

Therefore, to plant in them a spiritual affection from the Holy Spirit and to root out the worldly one, the Lord said to them, Peace be with you (John 20:21). The Apostle, speaking for all the disciples, recalled this when he said, even though we once regarded Christ from a human point of view... we regard him thus no longer. This means: if we once clung to Christ with a worldly love when He was physically present with us, that affection has now ceased in us through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us.

Then, when the Apostle says, Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation, he concludes from the previous points that a certain effect follows: newness. He says that if anyone is “in Christ” (that is, in the faith of Christ, or through Christ), he is a new creation, for as it says in Galatians 5:6, For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any avail, but faith working through love.

It should be noted here that renewal by grace is called a “creation.” Creation is a change from non-existence to existence, and there are two kinds of existence: natural and of grace. The first creation occurred when creatures were brought by God from nothing into natural existence. Then, the creation was new, but it grew old through sin, as Lamentations 3:4 says, He has made my flesh and my skin waste away. Therefore, a new creation was required, by which we would be brought into an existence of grace.

This, too, is a creation from nothing, because those who lack grace are nothing. As Paul says, And if I understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing (1 Corinthians 13:2). Of the sinner it is said, In his tent (that is, of sin) dwells that which is none of his (Job 18:15). Augustine says, “For sin is nothing, and men become nothing when they sin.” Thus, it is clear that the infusion of grace is a creation.

The Apostle continues, The old has passed away; behold, the new has come. This is taken from Leviticus 26:10, where it says, And you shall clear out the old to make way for the new. From this, he argues as follows: if all things have been made new, and according to the Law the old must be cast away when the new arrives, then for any new creation, the old things have passed away (that is, they should pass away from it).

The “old things” that should pass away are legalistic observances (so that we serve not under the old written code but in the new life of the Spirit,Romans 7:6), the errors of the Gentiles (The old error is gone,Isaiah 26:3, Vulgate), and likewise the corruption of sin (We know that our old self was crucified with him so that the sinful body might be destroyed, and we might no longer be enslaved to sin,Romans 6:6). When such things pass away from us, the virtues contrary to these vices should be renewed, for as it is written, And he who sat upon the throne said, ‘Behold, I make all things new’ (Revelation 21:5).

After discussing the saints’ reward and how they prepared themselves to receive it, the Apostle now discusses the cause of both. He addresses three points:

1. He shows that the Author of all these things is God.
2. He recalls the benefit conferred by Christ (2 Corinthians 5:18b).
3. He explains the use of that benefit (2 Corinthians 5:20).

He says, therefore: I have said that we seek the salvation of our neighbor and that the old things have passed away; but all this is from God the Father, or from God as the author. As it is written, “For from him and through him and to him are all things” (Romans 11:36), and, “Every good endowment and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights” (James 1:17).

Then he mentions the benefits received from God (2 Corinthians 5:18). First, he mentions the benefit received; secondly, he explains it (2 Corinthians 5:19).

He recalls two benefits conferred by Christ: one is common and the other is special. The common benefit, for the whole world, was reconciliation to God. This is what he means by saying all this is from God, namely God the Father, who reconciled us to God, making peace between us and God. This was accomplished by Christ, that is, by the Incarnate Word. For people were enemies of God because of sin, but Christ removed this enmity from their midst by satisfying the debt for sin and producing harmony: “Whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross” (Colossians 1:20). Therefore he says, through Christ: “We were reconciled to God by the death of his Son” (Romans 5:10).

But a special gift was conferred on the apostles, namely, that they are ministers of this reconciliation. Hence he says, and gave us—the apostles and vicars of Christ—the ministry of reconciliation. As it is written, “Who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant” (2 Corinthians 3:6); and, “Let the mountains,” that is, the apostles, “bear prosperity for the people” (Psalms 72:3), namely, from the Lord.

Next, when he says, that is, he explains what he has just said. He first explains the first point, and then the second (2 Corinthians 5:19b). I say that God reconciled us to Himself in this way: there were enmities between God and humanity on account of sin, as has been said: “But your iniquities have made a separation between you and your God” (Isaiah 59:2). Therefore, with sin destroyed by the death of Christ, the enmities were dissolved. This is what he says: That is, in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself. This can be understood as God the Father acting in Christ by their oneness of essence: “I am in the Father and the Father in me” (John 14:11). Or, in Christ, God was reconciling the world to Himself through Christ: “We were reconciled to God by the death of his Son” (Romans 5:10). He did this by not counting their trespasses against them, that is, not retaining in His memory their sins, whether actual or original, to punish them, for which Christ fully satisfied. He is said to have reconciled us to Himself in this way: because He does not impute our sins to us. “Blessed is the man to whom the Lord imputes no iniquity” (Psalms 32:2).

Then, when he says, and entrusting to us the message of reconciliation, he explains the second point: the benefit conferred on the apostles. It is as if he is saying: He has given us the ministry of reconciliation in this way: He has entrusted to us the message of reconciliation. That is, He has given us the power and inspired our hearts to announce to the world that this reconciliation was accomplished by Christ. By doing this, we lead people to conform themselves to Christ through baptism: “Behold, I have put my words in your mouth” (Jeremiah 1:9).

Then, when he says, So we are ambassadors for Christ, he indicates the use of this benefit. He speaks first of the second benefit conferred on the apostles, and secondly of the first benefit conferred on all (2 Corinthians 5:20b). He says, therefore: since God has entrusted us with the message of reconciliation, we ought to use it. This is why we are ambassadors for Christ: “For which I am an ambassador in chains; that I may declare it boldly, as I ought to speak” (Ephesians 6:20). Our qualification for this ambassadorship comes from God’s power, which is in me. Hence he says, God making his appeal through us, because God, who speaks in us, makes us qualified for this ambassadorship: “For it is not you who speak, but the Spirit of your Father speaking through you” (Matthew 10:20); “Since you desire proof that Christ is speaking in me” (2 Corinthians 13:3).

Then, when he says, we beseech you, he describes the use of the first benefit. First, he exhorts us to its use; secondly, he shows the source of our power to be reconciled to God (2 Corinthians 5:21). He says, therefore: Since God has brought about a reconciliation and we are God's ambassadors in this matter, we beseech you on behalf of Christ. He speaks gently, even though he could have commanded: “Convince, rebuke, and exhort, be unfailing in patience and in teaching” (2 Timothy 4:2); “Accordingly, though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do what is required, yet for love’s sake I prefer to appeal to you” (Philemon 1:8–9). We implore you, I say, on behalf of Christ—that is, for the love of Christ—to be reconciled to God.

But this seems to contradict his earlier statement that God has reconciled us to Himself. Therefore, if He has already reconciled us, what need is there to be reconciled? For we are already reconciled. I answer that God reconciled us to Himself as the efficient cause; that is, He acted on His part. But for this to be meritorious for us, it is necessary that reconciliation also be made on our part, namely, in baptism and penance. It is then that we cease from our sins.

The source of our ability to be reconciled to God is indicated by the fact that He gave us the power to live justly and refrain from sin. By doing this, we are reconciled to God. Hence he says, for our sake, he made him to be sin who knew no sin. It is as if to say: You can be reconciled to God because Christ, who knew no sin—“He committed no sin; no guile was found on his lips” (1 Peter 2:22); “Which of you convicts me of sin?” (John 8:46)—was made to be sin for our sake. This can be explained in three ways:

1. First, it was the custom in the Old Law to call a sacrifice for sin “sin,” as in, “They feed on the sin of my people” (Hosea 4:8), meaning the offerings for sin. In this sense, he made him to be sin means He made Him the sacrificial victim for sin.
2. Second, “sin” is sometimes taken to mean the likeness of sin, or the punishment for sin: “God sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh” (Romans 8:3). In this sense, he made him to be sin means He made Him assume mortal and suffering flesh.
3. Third, something is said to be a certain way not because it is so in reality, but because people consider it to be so. In this sense, he made him to be sin means He caused Him to be regarded as a sinner: “He was numbered with the transgressors” (Isaiah 53:12).

He did this, so that in him we might become the righteousness [justice] of God—that is, so we might be justified by God. It can also mean “justice” because He not only justified us, but also willed that others be justified through us. This is the righteousness, I say, of God, not our own. And this is in him, that is, through Christ. Alternatively, Christ Himself can be called our righteousness. In that case, the meaning is this: that we might become the righteousness [justice] of God means that we cling to Christ by love and faith, because Christ is righteousness itself. But he says of God to exclude human righteousness, by which a person trusts in their own merits: “For, being ignorant of the righteousness that comes from God, and seeking to establish their own, they did not submit to God’s righteousness” (Romans 10:3). And this is in him, namely, in Christ (that is, by Christ), because He was made righteousness for us (1 Corinthians 1:30).