Thomas Aquinas Commentary Galatians 5

Previously, the Apostle showed that righteousness is not through the Law; here he leads them back from error to a state of right standing.

1. First, with respect to divine matters.
2. Secondly, with respect to human affairs (Galatians 6:1).

As to the first point, he does two things:

1. First, he admonishes them.
2. Secondly, he gives the reason underlying his admonition (verse 2).

In the admonition itself, he includes two things: an encouragement toward good and a caution against evil. He encourages them toward good when he says, Stand fast. It is as if to say: Since you have been set free from the bondage of the Law through Christ, stand fast and, with your faith firm and feet planted, persevere in freedom. And so when he says, Stand fast, he exhorts them to right standing, for one who stands is upright: He that thinketh himself to stand, let him take heed, lest he fall (1 Corinthians 10:12). Likewise, he exhorts them to be firm: Therefore, be ye steadfast and unmoveable (1 Corinthians 15:58); Stand, therefore, having your loins girt about with truth (Ephesians 6:14).

But he cautions and draws them from evil when he adds: and be not held again under the yoke of bondage, meaning, do not subject yourself to the Law which produces bondage. Of this yoke, it is written in Acts: This is a yoke which neither we nor our fathers have been able to bear (Acts 15:10), a yoke from which we have been freed by Christ alone: For the yoke of their burden, and the rod of their shoulder, and the sceptre of their oppressor, thou hast overcome (Isaiah 9:4).

The reason for adding the word again is not that they had been under the Law before. Rather, as Jerome says, to observe the legal ceremonies after the Gospel is a sin so great as to border on idolatry. Hence, because they had been idolaters, if they were to submit themselves to the yoke of circumcision and the other legal observances, they would be, as it were, returning to the very things in which they had formerly practiced idolatry.

However, according to Augustine in Epistle 19, three periods of time are distinguished regarding the observance of the legal ceremonies: the time before the passion, the time before the spreading of grace, and the time after the spreading of grace. To observe the legal ceremonies after grace had been preached is a mortal sin for the Jews. But during the interim period, before the preaching of grace, they could be observed without sin even by those who had been converted from Judaism, provided they set no hope on them.

However, those converted from paganism could not observe them without sin. Therefore, because the Galatians had not come from Judaism but wanted, nevertheless, to observe the legal ceremonies and put their hope in them, they were in effect returning to the yoke of bondage. For in their case, observances of this sort were akin to idolatry, since they held a false notion concerning Christ, believing that salvation cannot be obtained by Him without the observances of the Law.

Then when he says, Behold, I Paul tell you, he explains these two parts of his admonition:

1. First, the second part.
2. Secondly, the first part (verse 5).

As to the first, he does two things:

1. First, he shows what the yoke of bondage is that they ought not submit to.
2. Secondly, he proves it (verse 4).

Regarding the first of these, he does two things:

1. First, he shows that this yoke is a source of great harm.
2. Secondly, that it is terribly burdensome (verse 3).

The yoke of the Law is harmful because it nullifies the effect of the Lord’s passion. Hence he says, be not held again under the yoke of bondage, because behold, I Paul, who am speaking with the voice of authority, tell you, and rightly so, that if you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing, that is, faith in Christ will profit you nothing.

But against this is something recorded in Acts, namely, that Paul circumcised Timothy (Acts 16:3). Hence, in effect, he brought it about that Christ profited him nothing; furthermore, he was deceiving him. I answer that, according to Jerome, Paul did not circumcise Timothy as if intending to observe the Law, but he feigned the observance of circumcision when he performed it on him. For, according to him, the apostles feigned observing the works of the Law to avoid scandalizing the believers from Judaism. In other words, they performed the actions of the Law without the intention of observing them, and so they did not depart from the faith. Hence he did not deceive Timothy.

However, according to Augustine, the answer is that the apostles did in fact observe the works of the Law and had the intention of observing them. This is because, according to the teaching of the apostles, it was lawful at that time, before grace had become widespread, for converts from Judaism to observe them. Therefore, because Timothy was born of a Jewish mother, the Apostle circumcised him with the intention of observing the Law.

But because the Galatians were putting their hope in the legal observances after the spreading of grace, as though without them grace was not sufficient to save them, and they observed them in that frame of mind, for that reason the Apostle declared to them that if you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing. For it followed from this that they did not correctly value Christ, for whom circumcision was given as a sign: That it may be a sign of the covenant between me and you (Genesis 17:11). Therefore, those who submitted to circumcision believed that the sign was still valid and that the one it signified had not yet come. Thus they had fallen away from Christ. In this way, then, it is clear that the yoke of the Law is harmful.

Furthermore, it is a heavy burden, because it obligates one to the impossible. This is what he states: I testify again to every man circumcising himself, that he is a debtor to do the whole law. It is as if to say: I say that if you are circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing. But in addition to this, I testify to every man, both Jew and Gentile, who circumcises himself, that he is a debtor to do the whole law.

For one who professes a religion makes himself a debtor to all that pertains to the observances of that religion. As Augustine says, there has never been a religion without some visible sign to which those who live in that religion are obligated. In the Christian religion, for example, the visible sign is Baptism, which all Christians are required to undergo. Furthermore, they are obligated to everything that pertains to the Christian religion. Now the sign of the Mosaic Law was circumcision. Therefore, whoever circumcised himself was put under obligation to observe and fulfill all the matters of the Law. And that is what he says: he is a debtor to do the whole law: Whosoever offends in one point, is become guilty of all (James 2:10). No one, however, was able to keep the Law, according to Acts: This is a yoke which neither our fathers nor we have been able to bear (Acts 15:10).

But suppose someone is circumcised; then according to what was said before, he is obligated to observe all the matters of the Law. But this is to sin mortally. Therefore, he is obligated to sin mortally and thus he sins in either case.

I answer that on the assumption that the same conviction prevails, he is obligated to observe the matters of the Law. For example, if one is convinced that he would sin mortally unless he were circumcised, then, having become circumcised, if the same conviction remains, he would sin mortally if he did not observe the matters of the Law. The reason for this is that the conviction that something must be done is nothing other than a judgment that it would be against God’s will not to do it. If this is the case, I say that unless he did what his convictions dictate, he would sin mortally, not because of the work done but because of his conscience.

Likewise, if he does it, he sins, because ignorance of this kind does not excuse him, since he is ignorant of a precept. Nevertheless, he is not in an absolute dilemma, but only a qualified one, because it is within his power to correct his erroneous conscience. And this is the way the Apostle is here testifying to everyone who circumcises himself that he is obliged to observe the ceremonies of the Law.

Then when he says, You are severed from Christ, he proves what he said: namely, that they must not embrace the observances of the Law, because it involves a double injury: first, the loss of Christ, and secondly, the loss of grace. Moreover, the first is the cause of the second, because you who are justified in the law are fallen from grace.

He says therefore, You are severed from Christ. As if to say: Truly Christ will profit you nothing, because you are severed from Christ, that is, from living in Christ. The second injury is the loss of grace. Hence he says: you are fallen from grace. You who were full of the grace of Christ—because of his fulness we have all received (John 1:16); The heart of a fool is like a broken vessel and no wisdom at all shall it hold ()—you, I say, who believe that you are justified in the law, are fallen from grace. Be mindful, therefore, from whence thou art fallen and do penance (Revelation 2:5). You have fallen from grace, namely, from possessing future happiness or even from the grace you once had.

Having explained the second point, namely, that they must not submit to the yoke of serving the Law, the Apostle here returns to the first and shows that they must stand fast.

1. He gives an example of standing.
2. He removes an obstacle to standing (verse 7).
3. He tells them its mode (verse 13).

As to the first point, he does two things:

1. He proposes an example of standing.
2. He assigns its cause (verse 6).

He says, therefore, that for those who want to be justified by the Law, Christ profits them nothing, because they have fallen from grace. But we, the apostles, stand firm through hope, because we wait for the hope of righteousness—that is, for righteousness and hope, namely, eternal happiness: He has regenerated us unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead (1 Peter 1:3).

Alternatively, “the hope of righteousness” could mean Christ himself, by whom we have a hope for righteousness, because we are justified by Him: We look for the Savior, Our Lord Jesus Christ (Philippians 3:20); Who of God is made unto us wisdom and justice and sanctification and redemption (1 Corinthians 1:30). Or, it could mean the hope that is concerned with righteousness, so that we are justified not by the Law but by faith: We account a man to be justified by faith without the works of the law (Romans 3:28). Finally, “the hope of righteousness” could refer to the things we hope for, and toward which righteousness leads, namely, eternal life: As to the rest, there is laid up for me a crown of justice which the Lord, the just judge, will render to me in that day (2 Timothy 4:8).

This hope comes by faith, because the righteousness of God is by faith of Jesus Christ, as is said in Romans 3:22. This faith is not from man but from the Holy Spirit who inspires it: You have received the spirit of adoption of Sons, whereby we cry: Abba, (Father) (Romans 8:15). Therefore, just as faith is from the Spirit, so hope is from faith, and from hope comes the righteousness through which we reach eternal life. However, this hope does not come from circumcision or from paganism, because these contribute nothing to it.

For this reason, he says, For in Christ Jesus, neither circumcision nor uncircumcision avails anything, meaning they make no difference. What matters is faith—not an unformed faith, but the kind that works by love: Faith without works is dead (James 2:26). For faith is a knowledge of the word of God—That Christ may dwell by faith in your hearts (Ephesians 3:17)—and this word is not perfectly possessed or known unless the love it promises is also possessed.

Here, a gloss on the passage raises two problems. The first is that Paul says circumcision and uncircumcision are indifferent matters, yet earlier he had said, If you be circumcised, Christ will profit you nothing. I answer that they are indifferent concerning the general nature of the act itself, specifically for those who do not put any trust in them. However, they are not indifferent when you consider the intention of the one acting, for they are deadly to those who put their trust in them.

The second problem concerns the statement that those who do not believe are worse than demons, for the demons believe and tremble. I answer that they are worse if you consider the nature of the act, but not if you consider the will. For the demons are displeased by the very fact that they believe. Furthermore, there is not as much malice in the will of a person who does not believe as there is in the demon who hates what he believes.

Then, when he says, You did run well. Who has hindered you that you should not obey the truth?, he addresses the obstacle to standing firm.

1. He mentions the obstacle.
2. He teaches how to remove it (verse 8).

The obstacle to their standing firm was great and harmful, for the harmfulness of anything is measured by the greater good it hinders. Therefore, to show them that they faced a great obstacle, he reminds them of the spiritual goods they have lost, saying: You did run well. This refers to running by means of the works of faith formed by love, which incites one to run: I have run the way of your commandments, when you enlarged my heart (Psalms 119:32). This indeed applied to you formerly, but while you were running this way, you encountered an obstacle. Therefore he asks, Who has bewitched you? (This has been discussed already in Chapter 3, so we will pass over it now).

So, who has bewitched you—that is, hindered you from the truth of the Gospel—so that you should not obey it? This is said appropriately, for obedience is the application of the will to the decree of the one who commands. That is why faith involves both the will and the understanding. It is suitable, therefore, for the will to obey the faith. This is done by being willing to believe that the grace of Christ is sufficient for salvation without the legal observances.

Then, with the words, “Consent to no one” (a phrase not in the Vulgate), he shows how to remove the obstacle.

1. On their part.
2. On God’s part (verse 10).
3. On the Apostle’s part (verse 11).

Regarding their part, when he says, “Consent to no one,” he shows what is required of them to overcome this obstacle: from now on, they must not give their consent to any deceiver. We are not of the night nor of the darkness; therefore, let us not sleep (1 Thessalonians 5:5); Have no fellowship with the unfruitful works of darkness but rather reprove them (Ephesians 5:11); And their speech spreads like a canker (2 Timothy 2:17). From this it can be gathered that they were not yet corrupted, but he was concerned.

He then gives a twofold explanation for this, based on the phrase, This persuasion is not from him that calls you. First, when a person gives himself to someone, he ought to do nothing except what is of advantage to that person. But you have been given to Christ. Therefore, you should not heed or consent to anyone except those who come from Him. Because this persuasion—by which they wish to place you under the yoke of the Law—is not from God who calls you to life, but from the devil (for it is degrading), you should not consent to them. Alternatively, “not from him” could mean “against Him.”

The second explanation addresses the possibility that they might suppose consenting to a few people is not a great matter and constitutes no danger. But he says that they must not consent to them at all, nor underestimate their schemes. Rather, they must oppose them from the start, because a little leaven corrupts the whole lump—referring to the few who are persuading you. Alternatively, the “little leaven” could mean this persuasion, which, though small in the beginning, corrupts the whole lump—that is, the congregation of the faithful: Neither shall any leaven or honey be burnt in the sacrifice to the Lord (Leviticus 2:11).

Next, when he says, I have confidence in you in the Lord that you will not be of another mind, he removes the obstacle by pointing to God, who offers His help for this purpose. He mentions a twofold help: one concerning the Galatians themselves, and the other concerning the troublemakers. He says, therefore, I have confidence in you in the Lord that you will not be of another mind. It is as if he is saying: I have told you not to obey the deceivers, and I have confidence in you: I rejoice that in all things I have confidence in you (2 Corinthians 7:16); But, dearly beloved, we trust better things of you and nearer to salvation (Hebrews 6:9). I have confidence, I say, in this: that you will not be of another mind than what I have taught you—but though we or an angel from heaven preach a Gospel to you besides that which we have preached to you, let him be anathema (Galatians 1:8); Fulfill my joy, that you be of one mind (Philippians 2:2)—and this with God’s help. For this reason he says, in the Lord, with God working: And such confidence we have through Christ towards God (2 Corinthians 3:4), because the Lord will give you a mind that accords with the standard of the Catholic Faith: It is good to have confidence in the Lord rather than to have confidence in a man (Psalms 117:8).

Regarding the troublemakers, he says, he that troubles you shall bear the judgment, whosoever he be. This means he who perverts you from the right order, causing you to turn from spiritual to physical things, whereas it should be the contrary: Yet that was not first which was spiritual, but that which is natural; afterwards that which is spiritual (1 Corinthians 15:46).

Therefore, he shall bear the judgment, meaning he will undergo damnation. For just as one who urges another to good is rewarded—They that instruct many to justice shall shine as stars for all eternity (Daniel 12:3)—so one who urges another to evil is condemned: Because you have troubled us, the Lord trouble you this day (Joshua 7:25); Cursed be he that makes the blind to wander out of his way (Deuteronomy 27:18). And this applies to “whoever he may be,” meaning that whatever his dignity, he will not be spared.

However, Porphyry and Julian criticize Paul for presumption, asserting that in saying this he defames Peter (since he wrote earlier that he withstood him to his face). The meaning, they claim, would be: “whoever he may be”—that is, even if it is Peter—he would be punished. But as Augustine says, one should not believe that Paul was calling down a curse on the Prince of the Church—for it is written in Exodus 22:28: You shall not curse the prince of your people—or that Peter committed an offense worthy of damnation. Therefore, the Apostle is speaking of someone else who, coming from Judea, claimed to be a disciple of the important apostles. With that authority, he and other false teachers were subverting the Galatians, because of false brethren unawares brought in (Galatians 2:4).

Then, when he says, And I, brethren, if I yet preach circumcision, why do I yet suffer persecution?, he removes the obstacle from his own side.

1. He presents his defense.
2. He rebukes his slanderers (verse 12).

He refutes the false charge against him.

1. A charge that pertains to himself alone.
2. A charge that pertains to all (verse 11).

Regarding the first, it should be noted that when the Galatians excused themselves from observing the legal ceremonies because the Apostle had taught them so, the false brethren declared that the Apostle had misled them. They claimed he persuaded them to do this in order to lord it over them. As confirmation, they alleged that when Paul preached in Judea, he taught that the legal ceremonies should be observed. But the Apostle clears himself of this charge when he asks, And I, brethren, if I yet preach circumcision, why do I yet suffer persecution from the Jews? We are persecuted and we suffer it (1 Corinthians 4:12). The Jews persecuted Paul for precisely this reason: because he taught that the legal ceremonies should not be observed. Indeed, in Acts 21:21, James says to Paul: They have heard of you that you teach those Jews who are among the Gentiles to depart from Moses, saying that they ought not to circumcise their children nor walk according to custom. It is plain, therefore, that their charge is not true; otherwise, he would not have suffered their persecutions.

Also false is the charge they impute to me regarding something generally held by others, because if I preach circumcision, Then is the scandal of the cross made void. For not only I but all the apostles preach Christ crucified, to the Jews indeed a stumbling-block and unto the Gentiles, foolishness, as is said in 1 Corinthians 1:23. The main reason they are scandalized is that we preach that the legal ceremonies are made void through the Cross of Christ. Therefore, if I preach circumcision, the stumbling block is removed; that is, there will no longer be a stumbling block for the Jews from the Cross. They would endure it patiently—indeed, they would welcome it—if we preached the obligation to observe the legal ceremonies along with the Cross.

Alternatively, according to Augustine (on this passage), “the scandal of the cross is made void” means the Cross itself is made void, which is a scandal. It is as if to say: The Cross has lost its effect and its power. If righteousness be by the law, then Christ died in vain (Galatians 2:21). Now, the Apostle specifically says, the scandal of the cross is made void, to denote that the reason the Jews killed Christ was that He did not observe the legal ceremonies and taught that they were not to be observed: This man is not of God who keeps not the sabbath (John 9:16).

Then he rebukes the false brethren who had slandered him, saying, I would they were even cut off who trouble you. It is as if to say: They trouble you on one matter—they want you to be circumcised—but I wish that they were not only circumcised but wholly emasculated.

But this seems contrary to Romans 12:14: Bless, and curse not. To this, there are two responses. First, the Apostle was not calling down an evil on them but rather a blessing, because he was wishing them to be emasculated spiritually—that is, to abolish the legal ceremonies—so that they might preserve spiritual chastity: There are eunuchs who have made themselves such for the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 19:12). The second response is that he is wishing upon them the impotence that eunuchs have, so that they might not spiritually procreate. Therefore he says, I would they were even cut off who trouble you, meaning that they would lose the power of engendering error among you and others. This is deserved, because they engender sons into error and subject them to the bondage of the Law: Give them a womb without children, and dry breasts (Hosea 9:14).

Having proposed an example of standing and eliminated an obstacle to it, he now establishes its mode.

First, he establishes the mode of standing; secondly, he gives an explanation (verse 14).

Regarding the first point, he does three things:

1. He sets down the condition of this state.
2. He describes its abuse.
3. He asserts its proper mode (verse 13).

The condition of standing is liberty. The condition of any given state pertains either to liberty or to bondage, but the state of faith in Christ, to which the Apostle urges them, pertains to liberty and is liberty itself. Therefore, he says: For you, brethren, have been called to liberty. It is as if to say: They are indeed troubling you, for they are drawing you from what is better to what is worse, because you have been called by God to the liberty of grace: You have not received the spirit of bondage again in fear, but you have received the spirit of adoption of sons (Romans 8:15); We are not the children of the bondwoman but of the free (Romans 4:31). You, I say, who are free in Christ, they want to lead into bondage.

But this state is misused if it declines and if the liberty of the spirit is perverted into slavery of the flesh. The Galatians were free from the Law, but so that they would not suppose this was a license to commit sins forbidden by the Law, the Apostle addresses the abuse of liberty, saying, Only do not make liberty an occasion for the flesh. It is as if to say: You are free, but not so that you can misuse your liberty by supposing that you may sin with impunity. But take heed, lest perhaps this your liberty become a stumbling block to the weak (1 Corinthians 8:9).

Now, the mode of standing is through charity; therefore, he says: but by charity of the spirit serve one another. In fact, the entire state consists in charity, without which a person is nothing (1 Corinthians 13:1 and following). Moreover, it is according to the various degrees of charity that various states are distinguished. Consequently, the state of grace does not exist by virtue of a desire of the flesh but by charity of the spirit—that is, a charity that proceeds from the Holy Spirit, through whom we should be subject to and serve one another: Bear one another’s burdens (Galatians 6:2); outdoing one another in showing honor (Romans 12:10).

But since he said earlier that they have been called to liberty, why does he now say, serve one another? I answer that charity requires that we serve one another; nevertheless, this service is free. Here one might interject that, as the Philosopher says, a person is free who exists for his own sake, whereas a slave is one who exists for the sake of another as a mover or an end. For a slave is moved to his work not by himself but by a master and for the benefit of his master. Charity, therefore, has liberty as its moving cause, because it works of itself: The charity of Christ presses us spontaneously to work (2 Corinthians 5:14). But it is a servant when, putting one’s own interests aside, it devotes itself to things beneficial to its neighbor.

Then, when he says, For all the law is fulfilled in one word, he explains what he said:

1. About charity.
2. About not making liberty an occasion for the flesh (verse 16).

As to the first, he admonishes them to follow charity for two reasons:

1. Because of the benefit we obtain in fulfilling charity.
2. Because of the injury incurred by neglecting charity (verse 15).

The benefit we obtain in fulfilling charity is of the highest order, because in it we fulfill the whole law. Therefore, he says, For all the law is fulfilled in one word. It is as if to say: Charity must be maintained, because the whole law is fulfilled in one word—namely, in the one precept of charity: He who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law (Romans 13:8), and Love is the fulfillment of the law (Romans 13:10). Therefore, he says in 1 Timothy 1:5: The end of the commandment is charity.

However, it is said in Matthew 22:40: On these two commandments—namely, of the love of God and of neighbor—depend the whole law and the prophets. Therefore, it is not fulfilled in the one precept alone. I answer that the love of God includes the love of a neighbor: This commandment we have from God, that he who loves God, love also his brother (1 John 4:21). Conversely, we love our neighbor for the love of God. Consequently, the whole law is fulfilled in the one precept of charity.

For the precepts of the law are reduced to that one precept. Indeed, precepts are either moral, ceremonial, or judicial. The moral precepts are those of the Decalogue: three concern the love of God, and the other seven, the love of our neighbor. The judicial precepts are, for example, that whoever steals anything shall restore it fourfold, and others like this; they pertain absolutely to the love of a neighbor. The ceremonial precepts concern sacrifices and related matters, which are reduced to the love of God. And so it is plain that all are fulfilled in the one precept of charity: You shall love your neighbor as yourself, which is also written in Leviticus 19:18.

He says, as yourself, not “as much as yourself,” because according to the order of charity, a person should love himself more than his neighbor. Now this is explained in three ways:

1. As referring to the genuineness of the love. To love is to will good to someone; therefore, we are said to love both the one to whom we will good and the very good that we will for someone, but not in the same way. For when I will good for myself, I love myself absolutely for my own sake, but the good that I will for myself, I do not love for its own sake but for mine. Accordingly, I love my neighbor as myself in the same way that I love myself: when I will good for him for his own sake, and not because it is useful or pleasant for me.
2. As referring to the justice of love. Each thing is inclined to want for itself that which is most eminent in it, and in a human being, understanding and reason are the most eminent. Therefore, a person loves himself who wants for himself the good of understanding and reason. Accordingly, you love your neighbor as yourself when you will for him the good of understanding and reason.
3. As referring to order. Just as you love yourself for the sake of God, so you should love your neighbor for the sake of God—namely, so that he may attain to God.

Then, when he says, But if you bite and devour one another, take heed that you are not consumed by one another, he urges them to follow charity because of the harm we incur if we neglect it. Here he continues to speak to the Galatians as spiritual people, not bringing up their greater vices but mentioning ones that seem to be minor, such as sins of the tongue. Therefore, he says: If you bite and devour one another, take heed that you are not consumed by one another.

It is as if to say: All the law is fulfilled in love. But if you bite one another—that is, partially destroy the good name of your neighbor by slander (for one who bites does not take the whole, but a part)—and devour—that is, destroy his good name entirely and completely shame him by slander (for he who devours consumes all): Do not speak evil against one another, brothers; he who speaks evil against a brother speaks evil against the law (James 4:11). If you neglect charity in that way, I say, take heed of the calamity that threatens you: namely, that you might be devoured by one another. Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the concision (Philippians 3:2); I have spent my strength without cause and in vain (Isaiah 49:4). For as Augustine says, through the vice of contention and envy, pernicious rivalries are bred among people, and both life and society are thereby brought to ruin.

After indicating that the spiritual state consists in charity, the Apostle then deals with the cause of this state: the Holy Spirit, whom he says they must follow. He then mentions three benefits obtained from the Holy Spirit.

1. Freedom from the bondage of the flesh.
2. Freedom from the bondage of the Law (Galatians 5:18).
3. The conferring of life, or security from the damnation of death (Galatians 5:25).

Regarding the first point, he does two things:

1. He presents the first benefit of the Spirit.
2. He shows the need for this benefit (Galatians 5:17).

Therefore, he says: I say that you are obliged by the charity of the spirit to serve one another, because nothing profits without charity. But this I say in Christ—by the faith of Christ—walk in the spirit. This can be understood first as walking in the mind and reason, for our mind is sometimes called a spirit, according to Ephesians 4:23: Be renewed in the spirit of your mind, and 1 Corinthians 14:15: I will sing with the spirit, I will sing also with the understanding.

Alternatively, to “walk in the spirit” means to make progress in the Holy Spirit by acting well. For the Holy Spirit moves and prompts hearts to do good: Whosoever are led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God (Romans 8:14). One should, therefore, walk by the spirit—that is, the mind—so that one’s reason or mind is in accord with the Law of God, as it is said in Romans 7:16.

For the human spirit is fickle. Unless it is governed from an outside source, it turns now in one direction and now in another, as is said in Sirach 34:6: The heart fancieth as that of a woman in travail. Except it be a vision sent forth from the most High, set not thy heart upon them. For this reason, Ephesians 4:17 says of certain people: They walk in the vanity of their mind. Therefore, human reason cannot stand perfectly unless it is governed by a divine spirit.

Accordingly, the Apostle says to walk in the spirit, meaning under the rule and guidance of the Holy Spirit, whom we should follow as a guide pointing out the way. For knowledge of the supernatural end is in us only from the Holy Spirit: Eye hath not seen nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man what things God hath prepared for them that love Him. And immediately he adds, But to us God hath revealed them by his Spirit (1 Corinthians 2:9).

We should also follow the Spirit as one who inclines us. For the Holy Spirit stirs up and turns our affections toward willing what is right: Whosoever are led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God (Romans 8:14); Thy good spirit shall lead me into the right land (Psalms 142:10).

Now, one should walk in the spirit because it frees a person from the defilement of the flesh. Therefore, the Apostle continues: and you shall not fulfil the lusts of the flesh, meaning the pleasures that the flesh suggests. This is what the Apostle yearned for, saying: Unhappy man that I am, who shall deliver me from the body of this death? (Romans 7:24). Later he concludes: There is now therefore no condemnation to them that are in Christ Jesus, who walk not according to the flesh (Romans 8:1). And at once he gives the reason for this: For the law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus hath delivered me from the law of sin and of death (Romans 8:2).

This is the special desire of the saints: that they not fulfill the desires to which the flesh stirs them. It must always be understood, however, that this does not include desires related to the necessities of the flesh, but only those related to excesses.

Then, when he says, For the flesh lusteth against the spirit, he explains why this benefit is needed, namely, because of the struggle between the flesh and the spirit.

1. He asserts that there is a struggle.
2. He elucidates this by an obvious sign (Galatians 5:17).

Therefore, he says: It is necessary that by the spirit you overcome the desires of the flesh, for the flesh lusteth against the spirit. But a doubt might arise here, because since lusting is an act of the soul alone, it does not seem to come from the flesh. I answer that, according to Augustine, the flesh is said to lust insofar as the soul lusts through the flesh, just as the eye is said to see when, in fact, it is the soul that sees through the eye.

Consequently, the soul lusts through the flesh when it seeks pleasurable things according to the flesh. But the soul lusts through itself when it takes pleasure in things that are according to the spirit, such as virtuous works, contemplation of divine things, and meditation on wisdom: The desire of wisdom bringeth to the everlasting kingdom .

But if it is the soul that lusts through the flesh, how does the flesh lust against the spirit? It does so in the sense that the lusting of the flesh hinders the desires of the spirit. For since the pleasures of the flesh concern goods that are beneath us, whereas the pleasures of the spirit concern goods that are above us, when the soul is occupied with the lower things of the flesh, it is withdrawn from the higher things of the spirit.

But his further statement that the spirit lusts against the flesh may raise a problem. For if we take “spirit” to mean the Holy Spirit, and the desire of the Holy Spirit is against evil things, it seems to follow that the flesh against which the spirit lusts is evil—which is the Manichean error. I answer that the spirit does not lust against the nature of the flesh, but against its desires, namely, those that concern excesses. For this reason he said above, you shall not fulfil the lusts of the flesh (Galatians 5:16), meaning superfluous things. For in necessary things the spirit does not contradict the flesh, as we are told in Ephesians 5:29: No man hateth his own flesh.

Then when he says, For these are contrary one to another, he gives evidence of the struggle. It is as if to say: It is obvious from experience that they fight and struggle against one another, to such an extent that you do not—that is, are not permitted to do—the things, good or evil, that you wish: The good which I will I do not: but the evil which I will not, that I do (Romans 7:19).

However, free will is not taken away. For since free will consists in having choice, there is freedom of the will with respect to things subject to choice. But not all that lies in us is fully subject to our choice, but only in a qualified sense. In specific cases we are able to avoid this or that movement of lust or anger, but we cannot avoid all movements of anger or lust in general—and this is by reason of the “fomes” introduced by the first sin.

Here it should be noted that with respect to lusts, there are four categories of people who do not do what they wish. The intemperate, who deliberately follow the passions of the flesh—according to Proverbs 2:14: They are glad when they have done evil—do, indeed, what they will, insofar as they follow their passions; but insofar as their reason complains and is displeased, they are doing what they do not wish.

Incontinent persons, who resolve to abstain but are nevertheless conquered by their passions, do what they do not wish, insofar as they follow such passions contrary to what they resolved. Between these two types, the intemperate person does more of what he wishes.

Those who are continent, who would prefer not to lust at all, do what they intend as long as they are not subject to lust; but because they cannot completely repress lust, they do what they do not wish.

Finally, those who are temperate do what they wish, insofar as there is no lust in their tamed flesh. But because the flesh cannot be totally tamed so as never to rise up against the spirit—just as malice can never so abound that reason would never complain—in those instances in which they do lust, they are doing what they do not wish. For the most part, however, they do what they wish.

After showing that through the Spirit we are freed from the desires of the flesh, the Apostle here shows that through the Spirit we are also released from the bondage of the Law.

He proceeds in two steps:

1. He mentions a benefit of the Spirit.
2. He demonstrates this benefit by its effects (verse 19).

He says, therefore, that if you walk in the Spirit, you will not only refrain from carrying out the desires of the flesh, but more than that, if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the Law. This happens when you do what the Spirit suggests as your director and guide, rather than what your sensual desires urge. As the psalmist says, Your good spirit shall lead me into the right land (Psalms 142:10)—not by compelling, but by guiding.

Jerome infers from these words that after the coming of Christ, no one who has the Holy Spirit is obligated to observe the Law. However, it should be recognized that the saying, if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under the law, can refer to either the ceremonial or the moral precepts of the Law.

If it refers to the ceremonial precepts, then it is one thing to observe the Law and another to be under the Law. To observe the Law is to carry out its works without placing any hope in them, but to be under the Law is to place one’s hope in its works. In the early Church, some righteous men observed the Law without being under it, since they performed the works of the Law but did not place their hope in them. In this way, even Christ was under the Law: Made under the law (Galatians 4:4). Thus, Jerome’s opinion is excluded.

If, however, the saying refers to the moral precepts, then "to be under the Law" can be understood in two ways. First, regarding its obliging force, all the faithful are under the Law because it was given to all. As it is said, I have not come to destroy the law but to fulfill it (Matthew 5:17). Second, regarding its compelling force, the just are not under the Law, because the movements and inspirations of the Holy Spirit within them are their guide. Charity inclines them to the very things the Law prescribes.

Therefore, because the just have an inward law, they willingly do what the Law commands and are not constrained by it. In contrast, those who would do evil but are held back by shame or fear of the Law are compelled by it. Accordingly, the just are under the Law in its obliging sense but not its compelling sense, while the unjust are under it in the compelling sense alone. For where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty (2 Corinthians 3:17), and the law, as a compelling force, is not made for the just man (1 Timothy 1:9).

Then, when he says, the works of the flesh are manifest, he proves his point through certain effects. He proceeds as follows:

1. He mentions the works of the flesh, which are opposed to the Holy Spirit.
2. He shows how the works of the Spirit are not forbidden by the Law (verse 23b).

Regarding the first point, he does two things:

1. He mentions the works of the flesh that are forbidden by the Law.
2. He mentions the works of the Spirit, which are not forbidden by it (verse 22).

Regarding this first point, he again does two things:

1. He enumerates the works of the flesh.
2. He mentions the harm that follows from them (verse 21).

Regarding the enumeration of the works of the flesh, two questions arise. The first concerns the Apostle’s inclusion of things that do not seem to pertain to the flesh, such as idolatry, sects, and rivalries, which he nevertheless calls "works of the flesh."

I answer that, according to Augustine in The City of God (Book 14), one who lives according to the flesh is one who lives according to himself. In this context, "flesh" refers to the whole person. Accordingly, whatever springs from disordered self-love is called a work of the flesh.

Alternatively, a sin can be called "of the flesh" in two ways. First, with respect to its fulfillment; in this sense, only sins fulfilled in carnal pleasure, namely lust and gluttony, are sins of the flesh. Second, with respect to its root; in this sense, all sins are called sins of the flesh, because the soul is so weighed down by the weakness of the flesh (as is written in Wisdom 9:15) that the enfeebled intellect can be easily misled and hindered from operating perfectly. As a consequence, certain vices follow from this, such as heresies, sects, and the like. In this way, it is said that the fomes (the tinder of sin) is the source of all sins.

The second question is this: since the Apostle says that those who do such things will not inherit the kingdom of God, and since no one is excluded from the kingdom except for mortal sin, does it follow that all the sins listed are mortal sins? This seems unlikely, because the list includes many things that are not always mortal sins, such as contentions and rivalries.

I answer that all the sins listed here are mortal in one way or another. Some are mortal according to their genus, such as murder, fornication, and idolatry. Others are mortal with respect to their fulfillment, such as anger, whose fulfillment consists in harm to a neighbor. If one consents to that harm, it is a mortal sin. Similarly, eating is directed toward the pleasure of food, but if one makes such pleasure his ultimate end, he sins mortally. Accordingly, the Apostle does not say "eating" but "revellings." The same principle applies to the other sins of this kind.

A third point concerns the order of the list. It should be recognized that when the Apostle lists various vices in different texts, his intention is not to provide a complete and perfectly ordered enumeration according to formal rules. Instead, he lists those vices that are prevalent and excessive among the people to whom he is writing. Therefore, in these lists, one should look not for completeness but for the reason behind the specific selection and variation.

Having settled these questions, we should next observe that the Apostle lists vices of the flesh concerning things not necessary for life, as well as those concerning things that are necessary. Among the first group, he mentions vices a person commits against himself, then those against God, and finally, those against his neighbor.

There are four vices against the self, which he mentions first because they so obviously spring from the flesh. Two of these pertain to the carnal act of lust. The first is fornication, which is when an unmarried man and an unmarried woman engage in the natural act of lust. The second is uncleanness, which refers to a use contrary to nature: No fornicator or unclean... hath inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God (Ephesians 5:5); They have not done penance for the uncleanness and fornication and lasciviousness that they have committed (2 Corinthians 12:21).

The other two vices are ordered toward these acts. One is performed outwardly, through touches, looks, kisses, and the like; regarding this, he says immodesty: Who despairing, have given themselves up to immodesty unto the working of all uncleanness (Ephesians 4:19). The other is performed inwardly, through unclean thoughts; regarding this, he says luxury (or wantonness): When they have grown wanton in Christ, they will marry (1 Timothy 5:11).

Against God, he lists two vices. The first is that by which divine worship is hindered by the enemies of God; regarding this, he says idolatry: Neither become ye idolaters as some of them (1 Corinthians 10:7); For the worship of abominable idols is the cause and beginning and end of all evil . The second is that in which a pact is made with demons; regarding this, he says witchcraft, which is performed through magical arts and called veneficia in Latin (from "venom"), because it results in great harm to people: I would not that you should be made partakers with devils (1 Corinthians 10:20); Without are dogs and sorcerers (Revelation 22:15).

Against one’s neighbor, he enumerates nine vices, beginning with enmity and ending with murder, because the former leads to the latter.

1. Enmities, which are animosity in the heart or hatred toward one’s neighbor: And a man’s enemies shall be they of his own household (Matthew 10:36).
2. Contentions, which are verbal disputes arising from enmities and are attacks on the truth with the confidence of shouting: It is an honor for a man to separate himself from quarrels (Proverbs 20:3).
3. Emulations, or rivalries, which consist in contending with another to obtain the same thing and arise from contention.
4. Wraths, the anger that arises when one is hindered by someone else pursuing the same thing: The anger of men worketh not the justice of God (James 1:20); Let not the sun go down on your anger (Ephesians 4:26).
5. Quarrels, which occur when anger of the spirit leads to blows: Hatred stirs up strifes (Proverbs 10:12).
6. Dissensions, which arise from quarrels. When they concern human matters, they are called dissensions, such as factions in the Church: Mark them who make dissensions and offences contrary to the doctrine which you have learned, and avoid them (Romans 16:17).
7. Sects, which are dissensions concerning divine matters, that is, heresies: They shall bring in sects of perdition, and deny the Lord who bought them (2 Peter 2:1), and They fear not to bring in sects, blaspheming (2 Peter 2:10).
8. Envy, which follows from these and occurs when those with whom one vies prosper: Envy slayeth the little one (Job 5:2).
9. Murders, which follow from envy and can be in heart or in deed: Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer (1 John 3:15).

Finally, he mentions two vices that pertain to the necessities of life. One concerns drink; hence he says, drunkenness, meaning continual drunkenness: Take heed lest perhaps your hearts be overcharged with surfeiting and drunkenness and the cares of this life (Luke 21:34). The other concerns food, regarding which he says, revellings: Not in rioting and drunkenness (Romans 13:13).