Thomas Aquinas Commentary Romans 12

After showing the need for virtues and the origin of grace, the Apostle here teaches how grace should be used, a subject that pertains to moral instruction. He does two things in this regard:

• First, he sets out a general moral teaching.
• Second, he addresses more particular questions related to the recipients of his letter, beginning with and I myself also (Romans 15:14).

Regarding the first point, he does two things:

• First, he teaches how one should use grace to be a perfect person.
• Second, he teaches how the perfect person should sustain the imperfect, beginning with now him that is weak (Romans 14:1).

Concerning the first of these, he does three things:

• First, he offers instruction about the perfection of life relating to the sanctity by which a person serves God.
• Second, he discusses just dealings with one’s neighbor, beginning with let every soul (Romans 13:1).
• Third, he addresses the purity a person must preserve within themselves, beginning with and that, knowing the season (Romans 13:11).

Regarding the first of these, he does two things:

• First, he admonishes that a person should present themselves as holy to God.
• Second, he teaches how one should use the gifts of God’s grace that make one holy, beginning with for I say, by the grace.

Regarding the first of these, he does two things:

• First, he teaches how one should present oneself to God with respect to the body.
• Second, he teaches how one should present oneself with respect to the soul, beginning with and be not conformed.

Regarding the first point, he does two things. First, he urges them to pay attention to what he has taught, and he does this in two ways. He begins on his own behalf when he says, I beseech you therefore, brethren, as if to say: God’s judgments were described as beyond all comprehension and His ways as beyond all investigation, and so I beseech you, brethren, that you pay attention to what you have been taught.

He resorts to beseeching them for three reasons:

1. To show his humility: with supplication speaks the poor man (Proverbs 28:23), that is, one who puts no trust in his own wealth. For this reason, he attempts to compel people to good deeds not by what belongs to him but by what belongs to God. For to beseech is to call on sacred things as witnesses.
2. To move his readers more by asking than by inspiring fear through commanding as one in authority: accordingly, though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do what is required, yet for love’s sake I prefer to appeal to you (Philemon 1:8 and following); you who are spiritual, instruct such a one in a spirit of gentleness (Galatians 6:1).
3. Out of respect for the Romans, to whom he wrote: do not rebuke an older man but exhort him as you would a father (1 Timothy 5:1).

Next, he urges them to pay attention on God’s behalf when he says, by the mercy of God—that mercy by which you are saved: according to his mercy he saved us (Titus 3:5). And so, when we consider God’s mercy, we should do what we have been taught: should you not have had mercy on your fellow servant, as I had mercy on you? (Matthew 18:33).

Alternatively, by the mercy of God could mean, “by virtue of the apostolic authority mercifully entrusted to me”: I give my opinion as one who by the Lord’s mercy is trustworthy (1 Corinthians 7:25).

Second, he gives the admonition when he says: that you present your bodies.

Here it should be noted that, as Augustine says in the tenth book of The City of God, a visible sacrifice offered outwardly to God is a sign of an invisible sacrifice, by which one offers oneself and all one possesses for God’s service.

A person possesses three goods:

1. A person has the soul, which is presented to God by humble devotion and contrition: the sacrifice acceptable to God is a contrite spirit (Psalms 51:17).
2. A person has external goods, which they present to God by giving alms: do not neglect to do good and to share what you have, for such sacrifices are pleasing to God (Hebrews 13:16).
3. A person has the good of their own body. Regarding this he says: present—that is, to God—your bodies, as a spiritual sacrifice. An animal offered to God was called a sacrifice, either because it was offered for victory over enemies, for protection from enemies, or because it was offered in the entrance of the Tabernacle.

A person can present their body to God as a sacrifice in three ways:

1. When a person exposes their body to suffering and death for God’s sake, as it is said of Christ: he gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God (Ephesians 5:2); and as the Apostle says of himself: even if I am to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I rejoice (Philippians 2:17).
2. When a person weakens their body by fasts and vigils in the service of God: I pummel my body and subdue it (1 Corinthians 9:27).
3. When a person uses their body to perform acts of justice and of divine worship: yield your members to serve justice unto sanctification (Romans 6:19).

Moreover, one should recall that the offering sacrificed to God had four features:

1. The offering had to be sound and unimpaired; hence, Malachi says: cursed be the cheat who has a male in his flock and vows it, and yet sacrifices to the Lord what is blemished (Malachi 1:14). This is why he says living, meaning that the offering of our body that we make to God should be living by a faith formed by love: the life I now live in the flesh I live by faith in the Son of God (Galatians 2:20).

Note here that a natural sacrificial offering, previously alive, was killed and immolated to show that death still ruled the human race as long as sin reigned, as was said above (Romans 5:12 and following). But this spiritual sacrificial offering is always alive and increasing in vigor, in accordance with John: I came that they may have life and have it abundantly (John 10:10), because sin has now been removed through Christ. This is true unless we say that the sacrificial offering of our body is something alive to God through the justice of faith but is dead to the desires of the flesh: mortify therefore your members which are on the earth (Colossians 3:5).

Second, the sacrificial offering presented to God was sanctified in the very act of its sacrifice. Hence, it is written: every man of your race who, having an uncleanness, approaches these things that are consecrated, and that the children of Israel offer to the Lord, shall perish before the Lord (Leviticus 22:3). Therefore, he adds holy, made so by the devotion with which we bind our bodies to the service of God: consecrate yourselves, therefore, and be holy, because I the Lord your God am holy (Leviticus 20:7). Holiness in the proper sense signifies a relationship with God, insofar as a person does what is just before God.

Third, when the sacrifice was completed, it was described as a sacrifice pleasing and acceptable to God: the priest shall burn the whole on the altar as a burnt offering, an offering by fire, a pleasing odor to the Lord (Leviticus 1:9). Hence, he says: pleasing to God, because of a right intention: that I may be pleasing to God in the light of the living (Psalms 56:13).

Fourth, in the preparation of the sacrifice, salt was added: you shall season all your offerings with salt (Leviticus 2:13); every victim shall be salted with salt (Mark 9:49). Salt signifies wise discretion; hence, he says: conduct yourselves wisely toward outsiders. Let your speech always be gracious, seasoned with salt (Colossians 4:5).

Therefore, he continues: your reasonable service. This means to be discreet in presenting your bodies to God as a sacrifice—whether by martyrdom, abstinence, or any other just work—because all things should be done decently and in order (1 Corinthians 14:40); the king’s honor loves judgment (Psalms 99:4).

The just person relates to internal acts, by which they serve God, in one way, and to external acts in another. A person’s good and their justice consist mainly in the internal acts, by which they believe, hope, and love. Hence it says in Luke, the kingdom of God is within you (Luke 17:21). For it does not consist principally of external works, as is said below, the kingdom of God is not food and drink (Romans 14:17). Therefore, internal acts are an end sought for their own sake, whereas external acts, in which our bodies are presented to God, are a means to the end.

No limit is set on something sought as an end; rather, the greater it is, the better it is. But for what is sought as a means to an end, a limit is set according to its proportion to that end. Thus, a doctor seeks as much health as possible but does not give as much medicine as he can; rather, he limits it to the amount required for restoring health. Similarly, a person should set no limit on their faith, hope, and love; rather, the more they believe, hope, and love, the better they are. Hence it is stated in Deuteronomy: you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart (Deuteronomy 6:4).

But in external acts, a discreet limit is imposed by the demands of love. Hence Jerome says: Does a rational person not lose their dignity if they choose to fast and keep watch at the expense of their bodily health, or incur the marks of madness or sadness from singing the Psalms and office?

Then when he says, be not conformed and so on, he explains how one should present oneself to God with respect to the soul.

First, he forbids conformity to this age when he says be not conformed to this age, that is, to things that pass away with time.

For the present age is the measure of things that pass away in time. A person is conformed to temporal things when they cling to them with love: they became detestable, like the things they loved (Hosea 9:10); religion clean and undefiled before God and the Father, is this . . . to keep oneself unspotted from this world (James 1:27). The one who imitates worldly lifestyles is also conformed to this age: I testify in the Lord, that from now on you should not walk as the Gentiles walk in the vanity of their mind (Ephesians 4:17).

Second, he tells them to reform their minds from within when he says: but be reformed in the newness of your sense.

Here, a person's "sense" is called their reason, because with the senses a person forms judgments about what is to be done. When humanity was created, this sense was sound and strong: he filled their hearts with sense, and showed them good and evil ; but by sin it was corrupted and, as it were, grown old: you have grown old in a foreign land . As a result, it lost its beauty and charm: from the daughter of Zion has departed all her charm (Lamentations 1:6).

Therefore, the Apostle tells us to be reformed, that is, to take up again that beauty and elegance which the mind once had. This is accomplished by the grace of the Holy Spirit. If a person does not share in this grace, they should desire to do so, and if they do share in it, they should desire to progress in it: be renewed in the spirit of your minds (Ephesians 4:23); your youth shall be renewed like the eagle’s (Psalms 103:5).

Alternatively, one could interpret be renewed in your outward actions in the newness of your sense to mean, “in the newness of grace, which you have received in your mind.”

Third, he gives a reason for this admonition when he says: that you may perceive.

Here it should be noted that just as a person with a diseased palate misjudges the taste of food and sometimes shrinks from what is tasty but approves of what is disgusting, a person with a healthy palate judges tastes correctly. So too, a person whose affections are corrupted by conformity to worldly things misjudges what is good, whereas a person whose affections are upright and sound, their sense having been renewed by grace, judges what is good correctly.

That is why he said: be not conformed to this world, but be reformed in the newness of your sense, that you may perceive—that is, know by experience: taste and see that the Lord is sweet (Psalms 34:8)—what is the will of God, by which He wills that you be saved: this is the will of God, your sanctification (1 Thessalonians 4:3). That will is good, meaning He wills that we should will the honorable good and by His precepts leads us to it: I will show you, O man, what is good, and what God requires of you (Micah 6:8). And acceptable, insofar as what God wills for us to will is pleasant to a well-disposed person: the precepts of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart (Psalms 19:8). Indeed, what God wills is not only useful for attaining our end but also perfect, uniting us, so to speak, with the end: you must be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect (Matthew 5:48); walk before me and be perfect (Genesis 17:1).

God’s will is experienced as good, acceptable, and perfect by those who are not conformed to this age but are reformed in the newness of their sense. On the other hand, those who continue in their old ways, being conformed to this age, judge that God’s will is not good but burdensome and unprofitable: wisdom seems very harsh to the uninstructed .

Then when he says, for I say, by the grace that is given me, he teaches how God’s gifts should be used.

• First, he teaches this in regard to gifts that are not common to all, such as the freely given graces.
• Second, he teaches this in regard to the gift of charity, which is common to all, at let love be without dissimulation (Romans 12:9).

In regard to the first, he does two things:

• First, he teaches in general how one ought to use freely given graces.
• Second, he elaborates on this in detail, at having gifts (Romans 12:6).

Concerning the first, he does two things:

• First, he sets out the instruction.
• Second, he gives the reason for it, with the words for as in one body (Romans 12:4).

Regarding the first point, he does three things. First, he warns against excess, saying: I have encouraged you to be renewed by the newness of your sense, but you should do this in moderation, for I say—that is, I command—by the grace of the apostleship and the apostolic authority given to me: when they perceived the grace that was given to me among the gentiles (Galatians 2:9); to me, the least of all the saints, this grace was given (Ephesians 3:8). To all that are among you, because it is profitable for everyone: I wish that all were as I myself am (1 Corinthians 7:7).

This, I say, I command: not to be more wise than is fitting to be wise. This means no one should presume, relying on their own sense or wisdom beyond their limitations: be not wiser than is necessary (Ecclesiastes 7:16); I have not walked among great things, nor among marvels above me (Psalms 131:1).

Second, he exhorts them to a middle course, saying but be wise unto sobriety. That is, I direct you to be wise in proportion to the grace given to you. For sobriety implies a measure. And although the word in its proper sense relates to drinking wine, it can be used in regard to any matter in which a person should observe a due measure: training us to live sober, upright, and godly lives in this world (Titus 2:12).

Third, he teaches how this middle course should be measured when he says: and this, I say, is as God has divided—that is, distributed—to each one the measure of faith. This refers to the measure of His gifts, which are given for building up the faith: to each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good (1 Corinthians 12:7).

For God does not give such gifts to all in the same way, but distributes different ones to different people: there are varieties of gifts (1 Corinthians 12:4). Nor does He give them equally to all, but to each according to a definite measure: grace was given to each of us according to the measure of Christ’s gift (Ephesians 4:7). That is why the Apostle, thinking with sober judgment according to this measure, said: we will not boast beyond measure, but will keep to the measure of the rule by which God has measured out to us (2 Corinthians 10:13). To Christ alone has the Spirit been given without measure (John 3:34).

God gives not only the freely given graces according to a measure, but even that faith which works through love. Hence the apostles said to Christ: Lord, increase our faith (Luke 17:15).

After this admonition, the Apostle gives a reason based on the mystical body’s likeness to a natural body. He first addresses three things in a natural body: first, its unity, when he says, for as in one body; second, the multiplicity of members, when he says, we have many members, for the human body is an organism consisting of various members; third, the variety of functions, when he says, all the members do not have the same act. For the variety of members would serve no purpose unless they were assigned to different functions.

Then he compares these three aspects to the mystical body of Christ, which is the Church: he made him the head over all things for the Church, which is his body (Ephesians 1:22).

In this regard, he addresses three things.

First, he addresses the number of members, that is, of believers, when he says, so we, being many. As it is written, a man once gave a great banquet and invited many (Luke 14:16); and, many are the children of the desolate (Isaiah 54:1).

For although they are few compared to the unfruitful multitude of the damned, according to Matthew, narrow is the way that leads to life, and few there are who find it (Matthew 7:14), yet absolutely speaking, they are many: after this he looked, and behold, a great multitude which no man could number (Revelation 7:9).

Second, he addresses the unity of the mystical body when he says, we are one body: that he might reconcile us both to God in one body through the cross (Ephesians 2:16).

This mystical body has a spiritual unity through which we are united to one another and to God by faith and love: there is one body and one spirit (Ephesians 4:4). And because the Spirit of unity flows into us from Christ—anyone who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him (Romans 8:9)—he adds, in Christ, who unites us to one another and to God by His Spirit whom He gives us: that they may be one even as we are one (John 17:22).

Third, he addresses the variety of functions, which is rooted in mutual benefit, when he says, and every one members one of another.

For any given member has its own function and power. Therefore, insofar as the function and power of one member aids another, it is said to be the other’s member. Thus, the foot is called the eye’s member, insofar as it carries the eye, and the eye is called the foot’s member, insofar as it directs the foot: the eye cannot say to the hand: I have no need of you (1 Corinthians 12:21).

Likewise, in the mystical body, one who has received the gift of prophecy needs the one who has received the gift of healing, and so on for the others. Therefore, as long as each believer uses the grace given to him to help another, he becomes the other’s member: bear one another’s burdens (Galatians 6:2); as each has received a gift, employ it for one another (1 Peter 4:10).

Then when he says, having gifts, he explains in more detail the previous general admonition to use grace in a sober and moderate way. First, he lays out the variety of graces: we are, I say, members one of another, not because of the same grace, but by having different gifts. This is not due to different merits but according to the grace given to us: each has his own special gift from God, one of one kind and another of another (1 Corinthians 7:7); he called his servants and gave to each his goods, and to one he gave five talents, to another two, and to another only one (Matthew 25:14).

Second, he addresses the use of different graces, and first regarding the knowledge of divine things, saying: if prophecy, the one among us who has it should use it according to the rule of faith.

Prophecy is a kind of vision arising from the divine revelation of things that are distant. Hence it is said in 1 Samuel: he who is now called a prophet was formerly called a seer (1 Samuel 9:9). Among matters distant from our knowledge, some are distant by their very nature, such as future contingents, which are not knowable because their causes are not determined. But divine matters are distant from our knowledge not because of their own nature—for they are knowable in the highest degree, because God is light and there is no darkness in him (1 John 1:5)—but because of the weakness of our intellect, which is related to the most evident matters as the eye of an owl is to sunlight. And because something is said to be a certain way in a truer sense when it is so in its own right rather than because of something else, future contingents are said to be, in a truer sense, distant from our knowledge. For this reason, they are the proper subject of prophecy: surely the Lord God does nothing without revealing his secret to his servants the prophets (Amos 3:7). But prophecy in a general sense includes the revelation of any secret things.

This gift of prophecy existed not only in the Old Testament but in the New as well: I will pour out my spirit on all flesh: your sons and daughters shall prophesy (Joel 2:28). In the New Testament, those who explained prophetic statements were also called prophets, because Sacred Scripture is explained in the same Spirit in which it was written: I shall pour out teaching like prophecy .

The gift of prophecy, like all the other charismatic graces, is ordained for the building up of faith: to each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good (1 Corinthians 12:7); It was declared, that is, the doctrine of faith, by the Lord, while God also bore witness by signs and wonders and various miracles and by gifts of the Holy Spirit (Hebrews 2:3–4). Consequently, prophecy should be used according to the rule of faith, that is, not in vain but so that faith may be strengthened, not opposed, by it: if a prophet arises among you and says ‘let us go after other gods,’ you shall not listen to the words of that prophet (Deuteronomy 13:1–3), because he is not prophesying in proportion to the faith.

In regard to administering the sacraments he adds, or ministry, in ministering; that is, if one has received the grace or office of the ministry, such as the bishop or priest who are called God’s ministers—you shall be called the priests of the Lord, the ministers of our God (Isaiah 61:6)—let him perform his office diligently in ministering: fulfill your ministry (2 Timothy 4:5).

Second, he addresses matters related to human affairs in which one person can help another: first, regarding knowledge, both speculative and practical.

With respect to speculative knowledge he says, or he who teaches, that is, whoever has the office or grace of teaching, should use it in teaching, that is, teach diligently and faithfully: behold, you have taught many (Job 4:3); go, therefore, and teach all nations (Matthew 28:19).

With respect to practical knowledge he says, he who exhorts, that is, has the office and grace of exhorting, should use it in exhorting: our appeal does not spring from error or uncleanness, nor is it made with guile (1 Thessalonians 2:3); declare these things; exhort with all authority (Titus 2:15).

Then he mentions those gifts that pertain to external works in which a person sometimes helps another by giving a gift. In this regard he says, he who contributes, that is, has the power and grace to contribute, should do this in simplicity, namely, with no evil ulterior motive, such as enticing people to evil with gifts, and with no intention of obtaining much more from the small amount given: a stupid man’s gift will bring you no advantage, his eyes look for seven times as much in return. He gives little and criticizes harshly ; the simplicity of the just shall guide them (Proverbs 11:3).

Sometimes one helps another because he has authority over him. In regard to this he says, he who rules, that is, has been entrusted with the office of a leader, should use that office in carefulness (with diligence): obey your leaders and submit to them; for they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give an account (Hebrews 13:17); my anxiety for all the churches (2 Corinthians 11:28).

Again, sometimes one helps another by alleviating his misery. In regard to this he says, he who does acts of mercy, that is, has the means and a merciful heart, should do this in cheerfulness, doing it gladly: not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver (2 Corinthians 9:7); in every gift make your countenance cheerful .

Then when he says, let love be without dissimulation (hypocrisy), he shows how to use a gift which is common to all, namely, charity.

First, he states what pertains to charity in general. Second, he discusses charity toward special classes of persons, at communicating to the necessities of the saints.

With respect to the first, he does three things:

1. He describes the qualities of charity as it exists in the one possessing it.
2. He describes the qualities of charity toward one’s neighbor, at loving one another with the charity of brotherhood.
3. He describes the qualities of charity toward God, at in carefulness, not slothful.

In regard to the qualities of charity, he teaches three things.

1. First, that charity should be true. Hence he says, let love be without dissimulation, so that it consists not in word or outward appearance but in a genuine affection of the heart and in effective works: let us not love in word or speech, but in deed and in truth (1 John 3:18); nothing can compare to a faithful friend .
2. Second, he teaches that love should be pure when he says, hating evil. Love is pure when a person does not consent to his friend's evil, but loves him in such a way that he hates his vices: it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the truth (1 Corinthians 13:6); I hate the double-minded (Psalms 119:113).
3. Third, he teaches that love should be honorable when he says, cleaving to good (clinging to what is good), so that one adheres to another because of their virtuous goodness: always seek to do good to one another and to all (Galatians 4:18). This is fair love, about which it is said: I am the mother of fair love .

Then when he says, loving one another with the charity of brotherhood, he shows how charity should be shown to one’s neighbor.

And first as regards inner affection, when he says, loving one another with the charity of brotherhood; that is, so that through charity we not only love the brethren but even love the very charity by which we love them and are loved by them. For if we regard charity as such a great treasure, we will not allow it to be dissolved so easily: let brotherly love continue (Hebrews 13:1); if a man offered for love all the wealth of his house, it would be utterly scorned (Song of Solomon 8:7).

Second, with respect to its outward effect, he says, with honor anticipating one another. Three things are designated here.

1. First, that a person should hold their neighbor in reverence. This pertains to the very notion of honor, for no one can truly love a person he despises: in humility, count others better than yourselves (Philippians 2:3). This is realized when one considers his own shortcomings and the good qualities of his neighbor.

   Under the heading of honor is included not only reverence but also the provision of necessities, for when it is commanded in Exodus, honor your father and your mother (Exodus 20:12), the provision of necessities is also commanded. This is clear from the fact that our Lord in Matthew rebuked the Pharisees for violating this precept by hindering children from helping their parents (compare to Matthew 15:3 and following).

2. Second, it designates that the effect of love should be shown mutually; that is, a person should desire not only to receive benefits but also to grant them: let not your hand be stretched out to receive and clenched when it is time to give ; in dividing by lot, give and take .

3. Third, he designates that the effect of love should be prompt and swift, when he says, anticipating, so that one should anticipate a friend in doing favors: every friend declares his friendship .

Then when he says, in carefulness, he shows the qualities surrounding charity’s love of God.

First, he starts with reason’s attentiveness when he says, in carefulness, not slothful, when it is a question of worshiping God: he has shown you, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you, and he continues, but to walk carefully with your God? (Micah 6:8); do your best to present yourself to God as one approved (2 Timothy 2:15).

Second, the affections, when he says, be fervent in the spirit, namely, in loving God.

Being fervent comes from an abundance of heat; hence it is called fervor of spirit, because the whole person is fervent toward God on account of the abundance of his love: Apollos, being fervent in spirit, spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus (Acts 18:25); do not quench the Spirit (1 Thessalonians 5:19).

Third, the outward homage when he says, serving the Lord, namely, with the worship of latria, which is paid to God alone: the Lord your God shall you adore and him alone shall you serve (Deuteronomy 6:13); serve the Lord with fear (Psalms 2:11).

Or according to another text, serving the time, meaning that we should perform our service of God at the fitting time: there is a time and an opportunity for every affair (Ecclesiastes 8:6).

Fourth, the reward of serving when he says, rejoicing in hope, namely of a reward which is the enjoyment of God: I am your shield; your reward shall be very great (Genesis 15:1); we rejoice in our hope of sharing the glory of God (Romans 5:2). But hope rejoices a person because of its certainty, yet it afflicts him because of its delay: hope deferred makes the heart sick (Proverbs 13:12).

Fifth, the difficulty a person endures in the service of God when he says, in tribulation, which you endure for God, be patient: tribulation produces patience (Romans 5:3).

Sixth, in light of all this, he says, constant in prayer, which indicates continuance in prayer: we ought always to pray and not lose heart (Luke 18:1); pray constantly (1 Thessalonians 5:17).

For by prayer, diligence is aroused in us and fervor kindled, we are stimulated to serve God, the joy of hope is increased, and we win help in tribulation: in my distress I called on the Lord and he answered me (Psalms 120:1).

Then when he says, communicating to the necessities of the saints, he discusses charity with regard to certain particular persons.

First, as regards the needy; second, as regards enemies, at bless those who persecute you (Romans 12:14).

Concerning the first, he does two things.

First, he urges in general that the benefits of charity be given to the needy, when he says, communicating to the necessities of the saints. Three things should be noted here: first, that alms be given out of charity to the poor and needy: let him labor, doing honest work with his hands, so that he may be able to give to others in need (Ephesians 4:28).

Second, that upright and saintly persons should be helped before others; hence he says, to the necessities of the saints: give to the good man; refuse the sinner . This does not mean that sinners should not be helped in their needs, but that they should not be helped in a way that nourishes sin. Yet it is more useful to help the just, because such an alms is fruitful not only for the giver but also from the prayers of the recipient: make friends for yourselves by means of unrighteous mammon, so that when it fails they may receive you into the eternal habitations (Luke 16:9), namely, by their prayers.

Then he urges hospitality when he says, pursuing hospitality, because the other works of mercy are included in this one. For a host offers not only his home as a shelter, but provides for other needs as well: do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers (Hebrews 13:2); practice hospitality ungrudgingly to one another (1 Peter 4:9).

Previously, the Apostle showed that charity should be practiced toward the needy; now he shows how it should be practiced even toward enemies. First, he gives the admonition, and second, he proves what he said, at the words for it is written.

Concerning the admonition, it should be noted that three things pertain to charity. The first is benevolence, which is to will good for another and not will evil. The second is concord, where friends will and reject the same things. The third is beneficence, which is to do good and cause no injury to the one loved.

Accordingly, the Apostle first addresses matters of benevolence; second, matters of concord, with the words rejoice with those who rejoice; and third, matters of beneficence, with the words repaying no one evil for evil.

In regard to the first point, he does two things. First, he urges that benevolence be broad enough to include enemies when he says: bless those who persecute you.

Here it should be noted that to bless is to say something good. This can happen in three ways:

1. By asserting a good, as when one person praises another’s good points: the lips of many shall bless him that is liberal of his bread; and the testimony of his truth is faithful .

2. By commanding. To bless in this way belongs to God, by whose command something good comes to creatures, or it belongs to His ministers who invoke the Lord’s name upon the people: Thus you shall bless the sons of Israel and say to them: The Lord bless you and guard you. The Lord show his face to you and have mercy on you. The Lord turn his countenance toward you and give you peace (Numbers 6:22–26); they shall invoke my name upon the people of Israel and I will bless them (Numbers 6:27).

3. By desiring: nor did they who passed by say: the blessing of the Lord be upon you (Psalms 129:8). To bless in this way is to wish someone well and, as it were, to pray for their good. This is the way the term is used here.

Hence, this directive, to bless those who persecute you, shows that we must have goodwill even toward enemies and persecutors by desiring their welfare and praying for them: love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you (Matthew 5:44).

This directive can be interpreted in one way as a precept and in another as a counsel. We are commanded to love our enemies in such a way as not to exclude them from our general love of neighbor and from the prayer one makes for all believers. We are also obliged to show the effect of this love for one’s enemies in particular cases of critical need. Thus it says in Exodus: if you meet your enemy’s ox or ass going astray, rescue it (Exodus 23:4).

However, for anyone to give his enemies the benefit of his help beyond cases of obvious need, or to say special prayers and show a feeling of love in a special way, pertains to the perfection of the counsels. This is because it shows that a person’s love of God is so advanced that it triumphs over all human hatred. But one who repents and seeks forgiveness should no longer be considered an enemy or persecutor; therefore, there should be no difficulty in showing him marks of charity: forgive your neighbor if he has hurt you: and then your sins shall be forgiven when you pray .

Second, he teaches that goodwill should be pure, that is, not mixed with its opposite. Hence he says: bless, and do not curse, meaning, bless in such a way that you do not curse at all. This is against those who bless with their mouth and curse in their heart: they speak words of peace to their neighbor, but have evil in their hearts (Psalms 28:3). It is also against those who sometimes bless and sometimes curse, or bless some and curse others: from the same mouth come blessing and cursing. My brothers, this ought not to be so (James 3:10); do not return reviling for reviling (1 Peter 3:9).

But the fact that many curses are found in Sacred Scripture seems to contradict this. For Deuteronomy says: cursed be he that does not abide in the words of this law and does not fulfill them in work (Deuteronomy 27:26).

The answer is that to curse is to say something evil. As with blessing, this can happen in three ways: by asserting, by commanding, and by desiring. In each of these ways, something good can be done and something evil can be done.

Something materially evil can be called evil in any of these ways. If it is called evil but has a good aspect, this is a blessing rather than a curse and is not illicit. For a thing is judged more according to its form than its matter. But if someone speaks evil under the aspect of evil, he is speaking evil formally; hence it is altogether illicit.

Both of these cases occur when someone makes an evil known by asserting it. For sometimes a person asserts that something is evil in order to make known a necessary truth. He therefore asserts evil under the aspect of a necessary truth, which is something good; hence it is licit. This is the way Job is said to have cursed his day, when he asserted the evil of the present life (Job 3:1), just as the Apostle did in Ephesians: making the most of the time, because the days are evil (Ephesians 5:16).

But sometimes a person asserts someone’s evil under the aspect of evil, namely, to detract from his good name; and this is illicit. For it is stated in 1 Corinthians: the evil-tongued shall not possess God’s kingdom (1 Corinthians 6:10).

Similarly, when one says something evil by commanding, it can happen that he says something materially evil but under a good aspect. For example, it is licit for a person in authority to command that someone undergo the evil of punishment, when it is just. In this way, violators of the law are cursed, that is, justly subjected to punishment.

But when someone commands another’s evil unjustly, for example from hatred and revenge, such a curse is illicit: he that curses his father or mother shall die the death (Exodus 21:17).

It is the same with regard to saying something evil by desiring. For if the evil is desired under the aspect of good—for example, that through adversity a person may make spiritual progress—it is licit: I have seen a fool with a firm root: and at once I cursed his beauty (Job 5:3).

But if this is done from hatred and revenge, it is altogether illicit: the Philistine cursed David by his gods (1 Samuel 17:43).

Then when he says, to rejoice with those who rejoice, he teaches about concord. First, he sets out the nature of concord, and second, the obstacles to it, at not minding high things.

Concord can be considered in two ways.

In one way, it can be considered as regards the effect it produces in reacting to good and evil. In regard to good, it makes one rejoice in the good of others; hence he says, rejoice with those who rejoice: I am glad and rejoice with you all (Philippians 2:17). But this refers to rejoicing with one who rejoices in what is good. For there are some who take joy in evil: some are glad when they have done evil, and rejoice in things most wicked (Proverbs 2:14). In such cases, one must not rejoice with others, for in 1 Corinthians it is said of charity that it does not rejoice over wickedness but rejoices in the truth (1 Corinthians 13:6).

In regard to evil, the effect of concord is that it makes one grieve over another’s evil. Hence, he says, weep with those who weep: I wept for him who was afflicted (Job 30:25); comfort them that weep, and walk with them that mourn .

The compassion of a sympathizing friend itself brings consolation in two ways. First, because it is convincing proof of friendship: in a man’s adversity his friend is known , and that itself is a joy, namely, to know that one has a true friend. Second, because the condolence of a friend implies that he is offering to carry the burden which causes the sorrow, and it is easier when a burden is carried by two people than by one person alone.

Second, concord consists in unity of opinion. In regard to this he says, being of one mind toward one another, that is, agree on the same matters: that all of you agree and that there be no dissensions among you (1 Corinthians 1:10); complete my joy by being of the same mind (Philippians 2:2).

Yet it should be noted that there are two kinds of opinion. One pertains to the intellect’s judgment about speculative matters, such as are considered in geometry and astronomy. Disagreement here does not conflict with friendship or love, because love exists in the will, whereas judgments about these matters do not arise from the will but from the necessity of reason.

The other opinion pertains to reason’s judgment about actions. Disagreement in these is contrary to love, because such dissension involves a contrariety of will. And because faith is not only speculative but also practical, inasmuch as it functions through love, as is stated in Galatians, dissent from correct faith is contrary to love (Galatians 5:6).

Then when he says, not minding high things, he removes the two obstacles to concord.

The first is pride, which inclines one to pursue his own excellence inordinately and to refuse subjection, while at the same time desiring to subject someone else and impede his excellence. From this follows discord: among the proud there are always quarrels (Proverbs 13:10). Hence to remove this obstacle he says, not minding high things, so that you do not inordinately seek your own excellence: be not highminded, but be afraid (Romans 11:20). But consenting to the humble, that is, accept humble things; when it is fitting, do not refuse what seems to be lowly: I prefer to be one of no account in the house of my God (Psalms 84:10); humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God (1 Peter 5:6).

The second obstacle to concord is overconfidence in one’s own wisdom or prudence, so that the opinion of others is not believed. To remove this he says, do not be wise in your own estimation, so that you judge as prudent only what seems so according to you: woe to you that are wise in your own eyes and prudent in your own conceits (Isaiah 5:21); lest you be wise in your own conceits (Romans 11:25).

Then when he says, repaying no one evil for evil, he teaches what pertains to beneficence by excluding its contrary. First, he teaches not to do evil to another for revenge; second, he teaches not to do evil for the sake of defense, at do not avenge yourselves.

In regard to the first point, he does three things. First, he forbids revenge when he says, repaying no one evil for evil: if I have returned evil for evil (Psalms 7:5); do not repay evil with evil (1 Peter 3:9).

But this must be understood in a formal sense, as was said above of evil. We are forbidden to return evil for evil when it is inspired by hatred or envy, so that we take pleasure in another’s evil. But if, in return for the evil of guilt which someone commits, a judge pronounces an evil of punishment in a just way to compensate for malice, he does indeed return evil materially, but formally and in itself he returns a good. Hence, when a judge hangs a criminal for murder, he does not return evil for evil but good for evil. This is the way the Apostle handed over to Satan the man guilty of incest, for the destruction of the flesh, that his spirit may be saved (1 Corinthians 5:5).

Second, he shows that even good things must be provided for our neighbor, saying, providing good things, not only in the sight of God, so that you take care to satisfy your consciences before God, but also in the sight of all men, so that you do things pleasing to men: give no offense to Jews or to Greeks, or to the church of God, just as I try to please all men in everything I do (1 Corinthians 10:32–33). Providing good things not only before God, but also before men (2 Corinthians 8:21).

But this can be done properly and improperly. If it is done for human approval, it is not proper conduct: beware of practicing your piety before men in order to be seen by them (Matthew 6:1). But it is proper when it is done for the glory of God: let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven (Matthew 5:16).

Third, he gives the reason for this advice. We should refrain from returning evil and should provide good things in the sight of all, in order that we might be at peace with men. Therefore, he adds, have peace with all men. Follow peace with all men (Hebrews 12:14).

But he qualifies this when he says, if possible. For sometimes other people’s malice prevents us from having peace with them, namely, because no peace is possible with them unless we consent to their malice. Such peace, of course, is illicit: I came not to send peace but the sword (Matthew 10:34).

Another qualifier is added when he says, as much as it depends on you. This means that even if they act against peace, we should do all in our power to preserve peace with them: I am for peace; but when I speak, they are for war (Psalms 120:7). And elsewhere: seek after peace and pursue it (Psalms 34:14).

Then when he says, do not avenge yourselves, he shows that we should not do evil to our neighbor in vengeance.

First, he presents the teaching: do not avenge yourselves, dearly beloved. Instead, it is said of Christ: I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to those who pulled out the beard (Isaiah 50:6) and like a sheep that before its shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth (Isaiah 53:7). Hence, the Lord himself commanded: if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also (Matthew 5:39).

But, as Augustine says, the things done by holy men in the New Testament are valid examples for understanding the commands given in Scripture. For the Lord himself, when he was struck on the cheek, did not say, “Here is the other cheek,” but if I have spoken ill, give testimony of the evil; but if well, why do you strike me? This shows that one must be prepared in the heart to offer the other cheek. For the Lord was prepared not only to offer the other cheek for humanity’s salvation but his whole body to be crucified.

As Augustine says to Marcellinus, this commandment is rightly kept when it is believed that it will be profitable to the one on whose account it is kept, to work in him correction and concord, even if another outcome follows. Thus, the precepts of patience are always to be held fast in the preparation of the heart, and benevolence itself must always be completed in the will, so that evil is not returned for evil. These and many other things must be done in order to correct even the unwilling with a kind of gentle severity.

Second, he assigns the reason when he says, but give place to wrath, that is, to divine judgment. As if to say: entrust yourself to God who can defend and vindicate you by His judgment, as it says in 1 Peter: cast all your anxieties on him, for he cares about you (1 Peter 5:7).

But this applies to cases in which no opportunity is left to us to do otherwise according to justice. But because, as it says in Deuteronomy, judgment is the Lord’s (Deuteronomy 1:17), when someone authorized by a judge seeks vengeance in order to suppress malice and not because of hatred, or on the authority of his superior secures his own defense, he is understood to leave matters to the wrath of God, since magistrates are God’s ministers. Hence even Paul obtained a bodyguard against the plots of the Jews (Acts 23:12 and following).

Then when he says, as it is written, he proves what he had said, first by an authority, and second by reason, at do not be overcome by evil.

In regard to the first point, he proves what he said about revenge being forbidden, saying, give place to wrath, that is, to divine judgment, for it is written: vengeance is mine, and I will repay, says the Lord (Deuteronomy 32:35).

Our text has this: vengeance is mine, and I will repay in due time; God the Lord of vengeance (Psalms 94:1); the Lord is a jealous God, an avenger (Nahum 1:2).

Second, he proves what he said about kindness to one’s enemies by an appeal to authority. First, he presents the scriptural teaching that we help enemies who are in danger of death, because this is binding by a necessity of precept, as stated earlier. And this is what it says: if your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him drink: do good to those who hate you (Matthew 5:44).

Second, he assigns the reason, saying, for, doing this, you will heap coals of fire upon his head. This can be given a negative interpretation, so that the sense would be: if you do good to him, your good will turn out evil for him, because from it he will incur eternal fire by his ingratitude. But this sense is contrary to charity, against which a person would be acting if he helped someone so that the help would turn out badly for him.

Therefore, it must be given a good sense, namely, by doing this, that is, helping them in time of need, you shall heap coals of fire—that is, the love of charity, of which Song of Solomon says, the lamps thereof are as lamps of fire and flame (Song of Solomon 8:6)—upon his head, that is, on his mind. For, as Augustine says, there is no greater incitement to love than to be the first to love. For the person is exceptionally hard who, though unwilling to bestow love, refuses to return love.

Then when he says, do not be overcome by evil, he proves what he had said by reason.

For it is natural to man that he wish to overcome his adversary and not be overcome by him. But something is overcome by another when it is drawn to that other, as water is overcome by fire when it is drawn to the heat of fire. Therefore, if a good person, on account of the evil done to him by another, is drawn to do evil in return, the good person is overcome by the evil. If, on the other hand, on account of a favor which the good person does for his persecutor, he draws the latter to his love, the good person overcomes the evil.

He says, therefore, do not be overcome by the evil of the one who persecutes you by persecuting him in return, but with your good overcome his evil, so as to draw him from evil by doing good to him: this is the victory which overcomes the world, our faith (1 John 5:4); they shall turn to you, but you shall not turn to them (Jeremiah 15:19).