Thomas Aquinas Commentary Romans 13

1. After showing how a person should behave toward God by using the gifts of His grace, the Apostle now shows how a person should conduct himself toward his neighbor.

   First, in regard to superiors.

   Second, toward all, as in owe no man any thing (Romans 13:8).

   Regarding the first point, he does two things:

   First, he urges people to the subjection owed to superiors.

   Second, he explains the sign of this subjection, beginning at wherefore be subject of necessity.

   Regarding the first of these, he does three things:

   First, he proposes his teaching.

   Second, he assigns a reason, beginning at for there is no power but from God.

   Third, he draws the conclusion, beginning at therefore.

2. Regarding the first point, it should be noted that in the early Church, some believers said that they should not be subject to earthly powers because of the freedom they received from Christ, since it says in John: if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed (John 8:36). But the freedom granted by Christ is a freedom of the spirit, by which we are set free from sin and death, as was said earlier: the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set me free from the law of sin and death (Romans 8:2). The flesh, however, remains subject to slavery, as was stated earlier (Romans 7:14). Therefore, the time when a person freed by Christ will not be liable to any subjection, either spiritual or carnal, will be when Christ delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority and power (1 Corinthians 15:24).

   In the meantime, as long as we live in the flesh, we are subject to temporal rulers; thus it says in Ephesians: servants, obey your masters in the flesh (Ephesians 6:5). And that is what the Apostle says here: let every soul be subject to the higher powers.

   What he calls “higher powers” are people established in power, to whom we owe subjection according to the order of justice: be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme or to governors as sent by him (1 Peter 2:13).

3. And he says indefinitely higher powers so that we may subject ourselves to them by reason of the sublimity of their office, even if they are wicked: be submissive to your masters, not only to the kind and gentle, but also to the overbearing (1 Peter 2:18).

4. The words every soul are to be taken as a synecdoche for “every person,” as we find in Genesis, that soul shall be destroyed from among his people (Genesis 17:14).

   And he uses this figure of speech because we owe subjection to the authorities from the soul, that is, from a pure will: not serving to the eye, as though pleasing men, but from the soul with a good will (Ephesians 6:6).

5. Then when he says, for there is no power, he presents the reason for this admonition:

   First, because subjection is honorable.

   Second, because it is necessary, beginning at he who resists.

   Regarding the first point, he does two things:

   First, he presents two principles.

   Second, he draws a conclusion from them, beginning at therefore, he who resists.

6. First, therefore, he speaks about the source of power, saying: there is no power except from God.

   For whatever is said in common of God and creatures comes to creatures from God, as in the case of wisdom: all wisdom comes from God . But power is said of God and of men: God does not abandon the powers, since he is powerful (Job 36:5). Hence, it follows that all human power is from God: the most high rules the kingdom of men, and gives it to whom he will (Daniel 4:17); you would have no power over me, unless it had been given you from above (John 19:11).

7. But a passage in Hosea seems to contradict this: they made kings, but not through me. They set up princes, but without my knowledge (Hosea 8:4).

   The answer is that royal power, or the power associated with any other dignity, can be considered from three aspects. First, in regard to the power itself, which is from God, through whom kings reign (Proverbs 8:15).

   Second, in regard to the way in which power is obtained. From this aspect, power is sometimes from God, namely, when a person obtains it rightfully, as it says in Hebrews: one does not take the honor upon himself, but he is called by God, as Aaron was (Hebrews 5:4). But sometimes it is not from God but from a person's perverse desire, who obtains power through ambition or some other unlawful manner: have we not by our own strength taken horns for ourselves? (Amos 6:13).

   Third, it can be considered in regard to its use. In this case, it is sometimes from God, as when a person observes the precepts of divine justice in using the power granted him: by me kings rule (Proverbs 8:15). But sometimes it is not from God, as when a person uses power given to him to act against divine justice: the kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord and his anointed (Psalms 2:2).

8. The question arises whether the power to sin is from God.

   The answer is that the power by which one sins is from God, for it is the same power that is employed in sinning and in doing right. But that it is directed to good is from God; that it is directed to sin is due to a defect of the creature, inasmuch as it springs from nothingness.

9. Second, he states that those that exist have been instituted by God. The reason is that God made all things through His wisdom, for it says in a psalm: in wisdom have you made all (Psalms 104:24). But it is the function of wisdom to arrange things in order: she reaches mightily from one end of the earth to the other, and she orders all things well . Therefore, divine effects must be orderly: do you know the ordinances of the heavens? (Job 38:33).

   But God has established a twofold order in His effects: one, by which all things are ordained to Him: the Lord has made everything for himself (Proverbs 16:4); the other is that by which divine effects are ordained to one another, as Deuteronomy says of the sun, the moon, and the stars, that He made them to serve all nations (Deuteronomy 4:19).

10. Then when he says, therefore, he who resists, he draws the conclusion.

    For if the power of rulers is from God and nothing is from God without order, it follows that the order by which the lower are subjected to the higher powers is from God. Therefore, he who acts against this order and resists the power, resists the ordinance of God: they have not rejected you, but they have rejected me (1 Samuel 8:7); he who rejects you rejects me (Luke 10:16).

    But to resist the divine order is contrary to the good of virtue. Hence, whoever resists power in anything that pertains to the order of this power acts against virtue.

11. Then when he says, those who resist, he shows that this subjection is not only virtuous but necessary.

    First, he states his proposition.

    Second, he proves it, beginning at for rulers.

12. He says, therefore: it has been stated that he who resists the power resists the ordinance of God, and this should be avoided as contrary to virtue. Yet there are many who have no love for virtue and who do not detest things contrary to virtue. Such persons must be compelled to avoid evil by punishments. In regard to this he says: they who resist the divine ordinance incur to themselves damnation for acting against the order of authority.

    This can be understood in one way as referring to eternal damnation, which is incurred by those who refuse to be subject to authority in matters in which they should be subject. As an example of this, Dathan and Abiram, who resisted Moses and Aaron, were swallowed up by the earth, as it says in Numbers (Numbers 16:20).

    In another way, it can be understood as referring to the punishments imposed by the authorities themselves: the dread wrath of a king is like the growling of a lion; he who provokes him to anger forfeits his life (Proverbs 20:2).

13. But against this is the fact that the apostles and martyrs seem to have resisted rulers and authorities and did not receive damnation from God as a result, but rather a reward.

    The answer is that the Apostle is now speaking of one who resists a lower power as established by God. But the divine order requires that a lower power not be obeyed in opposition to a higher one, just as in human affairs a governor is not obeyed against an emperor, nor an official against a king. And every human power is set under the divine power, so that no human power should be obeyed against God, as it says in Acts: we must obey God rather than men (Acts 5:29).

14. Then, when he says, for rulers, he assigns the reason for what he had said.

    First, he presents the reason.

    Second, from this reason he draws a useful teaching, beginning at do you will then to not fear the power?

    Third, he shows the necessity of this teaching, beginning at but if you do evil.

15. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that those who resist power, incur damnation, for rulers, who are here called powers, are not a terror, that is, a cause of terror, to good work, that is, because of good conduct, but to the evil, that is, because of bad conduct.

    It seems that this should be understood with reference to the reason for establishing rulers. For the reason rulers are established is so that those who are not inclined by any love of virtue to avoid evil and do good, may do so by fear of punishment: a king who sits on the throne of judgment winnows all evil with his eyes (Proverbs 20:8). And according to this interpretation, it says that rulers are not a terror to good conduct but to bad, as regards what rulers do in virtue of their office, as Isaiah says, but the prince will devise such things as are worthy of a prince (Isaiah 32:8).

    This can also refer to evil rulers, who are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. For even though they sometimes unjustly persecute those who do good, the latter have no reason to fear, because if they endure it patiently, it turns out for their good: even if you do suffer for justice’s sake, you will be blessed. Have no fear of them, nor be troubled (1 Peter 3:14).

    From what is said here, the reason can be assigned why those who resist authority incur condemnation, whether it be the punishment inflicted by rulers on those who rebel, or the damnation by which people are punished by God. For if rulers are a terror to bad conduct, it follows that those who resist their authority are acting wickedly and thus are the cause of their temporal and eternal punishment.

16. Then when he says, do you will then to not fear, he draws a useful teaching from what he had said, namely, how to avoid the terror of rulers.

    First, he suggests by his question that this is desirable, saying: do you will then to not fear power? As if to say: This should appeal to a person: as the roar of a lion, so is the terror of a king (Proverbs 20:2).

17. Second, he shows how to avoid this fear, saying: do what is good. For it says in Proverbs: righteous lips are the delight of a king (Proverbs 16:13), and in a psalm: he who walks in the way that is blameless shall minister to me (Psalms 101:6).

18. Third, he shows the effect of this, saying: If you do what is good, you will not only avoid evil but you will have praise from the same. This is obvious when one considers the reason why authority is established. For it is established not only to keep us from evil conduct through fear of punishment but also to induce us to good conduct through rewards, as it says in 1 Peter: be subject to governors as sent by the emperor to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right (1 Peter 2:14). This is also true of evil rulers, whose unjust persecution ends in praise for those who endure it patiently: we call those happy who were steadfast (James 5:11).

19. Fourth, he assigns the reason, saying: for he is God’s minister to you for good. This is clear in regard to the proper order of rulers. For they are under the authority of God, the supreme ruler, as His ministers: because as ministers of his kingdom, you did not rule rightly . But the ruler and the ministers work for the same end: like the magistrate of the people, so are his officials . Therefore, just as God works for the good of those who do good, so also do rulers, if they perform their office properly.

    Furthermore, even wicked rulers are God’s ministers for inflicting punishments according to God’s plan, although this is not their intention: ah, Assyria, the rod of my anger, the staff of my fury . . . but he does not so intend (Isaiah 10:5). Behold I will send, and take all the kindreds of the north, says the Lord, and Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon my servant: and I will bring them against this land, and against the inhabitants thereof, and against all the nations that are round about it (Jeremiah 25:9). And also because such wicked rulers sometimes afflict good men, God permitting, who profit thereby; for we know that in everything God works for the good with those who love him (Romans 8:28).

20. Then when he says but if you do evil, he shows the necessity of this teaching.

    For it has been stated that if you do right, you will not fear authority; but if you do evil, be afraid, because you have reason to fear: destruction to evildoers (Proverbs 10:29); wickedness is a cowardly thing, condemned by its own testimony .

    Second, he assigns the reason, saying: for he carries not the sword in vain. He uses language in keeping with the practice of rulers who carried the instruments of punishment as signs of their power; for example, a bundle of rods for whipping, and axes or swords for killing: be afraid of the sword, for wrath brings the punishment of the sword (Job 19:29).

    Third, he explains the reason, saying: he carries, I say, the sword, because he is God’s minister, an avenger to execute his wrath, that is, God’s wrath, or His just judgment, upon him that does evil: behold, I will gather together all your lovers . . . and I will judge you as adulteresses . . . and I will deliver you into their hands (Ezekiel 16:37 and following). Those who do evil are an abomination to kings, for the throne is established by justice (Proverbs 16:12).

    From this it is clear that it is not only lawful but meritorious for rulers to execute vengeance on the wicked, when it is done out of zeal for justice. Hence: and it shall be wages for his army, and for the service that he has done me against it (Ezekiel 29:19 and following).

21. Then when he says, therefore, one must be subject, he draws the main conclusion, saying: therefore, that is, for the reasons given, one must be subject to rulers of necessity, namely, because this is necessary for salvation, or be subject voluntarily to the necessity by which the ruler’s power inclines you to do right. Be subject not only for wrath, that is, to avoid vengeance, which pertains to the second reason, but also for the sake of preserving a good conscience, which pertains to the first reason, because he who resists authority resists what God has appointed: admonish them to be subject to princes and powers (Titus 3:1).

22. Then when he says, for therefore also you pay tribute, he urges people to show the sign of their subjection to authority.

    First, he mentions the sign of subjection.

    Second, he urges them to render the sign of subjection, beginning at render therefore.

23. Regarding the first point, he does two things: first, he mentions the signs of subjection, saying: for therefore also you pay tribute, that is, because you are subject, you should pay taxes as a sign of that subjection. Therefore, in a complaining way it says: the princess of the provinces was made tributary (Lamentations 1:1). They are in fact called contributions, for the very reason that the subjects contribute them to their lords.

24. Second, he assigns the reason, saying: for they are the ministers of God, serving, on behalf of God and the people, unto this purpose, that is, to receiving tribute.

    As if to say: everyone should make a living from his ministry, for it says in 1 Corinthians: who tends a flock without getting some of the milk? (1 Corinthians 9:7). And therefore, since our rulers minister to God in governing, they should receive taxes from the people as wages for their ministry and should not look upon it as a reward. For the special reward of a ruler is praise and honor, as the Philosopher says in book five of the Ethics. When this does not satisfy him, he becomes a tyrant. But this should not be understood as referring only to human praise or honor, because such a reward would be futile, but to divine praise and honor, which is bestowed on those who rule well: O monarchs over the people, honor wisdom, that you may reign forever .

    Furthermore, they receive these taxes as sustenance, and rulers labor for the peace of all. Hence it is said: I urge that supplications be made for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a quiet and peaceful life (1 Timothy 2:1); pray for the life of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, that we may live under his shadow .

25. Clerics are free of this debt because of a privilege granted by rulers, which is in fact equitable by nature. Even among the gentiles, those who were devoted to divine things were free from taxation. For we read in Genesis that Joseph subjected to Pharaoh the entire land of Egypt except the land of the priests, which had been given them by the king, and to whom also a certain allowance of food was given out of the public stores (Genesis 47:20–22). And further down it says that in the whole land of Egypt, the fifth part of the harvests was paid, except for in the land of the priests, which was free from this condition.

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    But this is also equitable, because just as kings have care of the public good in temporal affairs, so God’s ministers have care in spiritual matters. And so by ministering to God in spiritual matters, they are making a return to the king for his labor in procuring a peaceful life for them.

26. But it should be noted that although he says that taxes are owed to rulers as a wage for their labors, rulers can sin in two ways by accepting taxes.

    First, if they do not procure the people’s welfare but are intent only on seizing their goods. Hence it says in Ezekiel: you eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the wool, you slaughter the fatlings, but you do not feed the sheep (Ezekiel 34:3).

    Second, if they violently take more than the law permits and more than the people can bear. Hence it says in Micah: hear, you heads of Jacob and rulers of the house of Israel! Is it not you who tear the skin from my people, and their flesh from their bones? (Micah 3:1).

27. Then when he says, render therefore, he admonishes them to render the above-mentioned sign of subjection.

    First, in general, he says: Inasmuch as taxes are owed to rulers as God’s ministers, render therefore to all men their dues. From this it is clear that justice requires subjects to render rulers their due: to the king was brought one who owed him ten thousand talents (Matthew 18:24); render, therefore, to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s (Matthew 22:21).

28. Second, he specifies debts that are paid publicly, saying: tribute, to whom tribute is due, for these are paid to the ruler that he might govern the country in peace and quiet: he saw that a resting place was good, and that the land was pleasant (Genesis 49:15). Custom to whom custom is due; this is paid to the ruler in certain places as tolls, for the repair of roads and for safe travel. Or they are the expenses incurred when the ruler travels through his country.

    Next, he addresses those things that should be rendered internally. Here it should be noted that a ruler is owed fear and honor: fear, because he is a lord and uses his power to prevent evil men from doing evil: if I am the Lord, where is my fear? (Malachi 1:6). Hence he says: fear to whom fear is due: my son, fear the Lord and the king (Proverbs 24:21). But inasmuch as the ruler is like a father providing benefits, he deserves praise and honor: if I am a father, where is my honor? (Malachi 1:6). Therefore, he adds: honor to whom honor is due: honor the king (1 Peter 2:17). The opposite view is expressed in Leviticus: you shall not defer to the powerful (Leviticus 19:15).

    But this should be interpreted as forbidding a person to deviate from justice to benefit the powerful. Hence it continues: but in justice shall you judge your neighbor.

1. Having shown how believers should observe justice toward their superiors, the Apostle now shows how they should behave toward everyone in general.

   Regarding this, he does two things:

   1. First, he states his intention.

   2. Second, he gives a reason, at for he that loves.

2. First, therefore, he says that it has been stated that you must pay your debts to everyone, not in part but entirely. This is what he means by owe no one anything. It is as if to say: you should pay all you owe to everyone so completely that nothing remains to be paid.

   This is for two reasons:

   1. First, because sin is committed by delaying payment, as long as a person unjustly holds back what belongs to another. Hence it says in Leviticus, the wages of a hired servant shall not remain with you all night until the morning (Leviticus 19:13). The same is true of other debts.

   2. Second, because as long as a person owes, he is in a certain sense a slave and is obligated to the one to whom he owes: the borrower is the slave of the lender (Proverbs 22:7).

3. But there are some debts from which a person can never be freed. This happens in two ways: first, because of the excellence of the benefit, for which an equal payment cannot be made—as the Philosopher says regarding the honor owed to God or parents, as it says in a psalm: what shall I render to the Lord for all his bounty to me? (Psalms 116:12). Second, because the cause of the debt always remains, or even because what is paid is never exhausted but always increases as one pays.

4. For these reasons, the debt of brotherly love is paid in such a way that it is always owed.

   1. First, because we owe love to our neighbor on account of God, whom we can never sufficiently repay. For it is said: this commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also (1 John 4:21).

   2. Second, because the cause of love always remains, namely, having a similar nature and sharing in grace: every animal loves its like, and every person his neighbor .

   3. Third, because love does not diminish but grows by loving: it is my prayer that your love may abound more and more (Philippians 1:9).

   Therefore, he says, except to love one another, because the debt of love is paid in such a way that one always remains under the obligation of a commandment: this is my commandment, that you love one another (John 15:12).

5. Then, when he says, he who loves his neighbor, he gives the reason for the statement that we are never released from the debt of love: namely, that the entire fulfillment of the law consists in love.

   Hence, regarding this, he does three things:

   1. First, he states his proposition.

   2. Second, he clarifies it, at for you shall not commit adultery.

   3. Third, he draws the intended conclusion, at love therefore is the fulfillment of the law.

6. First, therefore, he says the reason we cannot expect to free ourselves from the debt of love, as we do from other debts, is that he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law; that is, the entire fulfillment of the law depends on love of neighbor.

   But this does not seem to be true. For it says in 1 Timothy, the aim of the commandment is love (1 Timothy 1:5). Since a thing is perfected when it reaches its goal, the whole perfection of the law consists in love. But love has two acts: the love of God and the love of neighbor. Hence, the Lord says in Matthew that the whole Law and the Prophets depend on the two commandments of love, one concerning the love of God and the other the love of neighbor (Matthew 22:40). Therefore, it does not seem that one who loves his neighbor fulfills the whole law.

   The answer is that love of neighbor is true love and fulfills the law when it is a love by which the neighbor is loved for God’s sake. In this way, the love of God is included in the love of neighbor, just as a cause is included in its effect. For it says in 1 John, this commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also (1 John 4:21). Conversely, love of neighbor is included in the love of God, as an effect is in its cause. Hence, it says in the same place, if anyone says, ‘I love God,’ and hates his brother, he is a liar.

   That is why in Sacred Scripture, mention is sometimes made only of the love of God as if it is enough for salvation, as in Deuteronomy: and now, Israel, what does the Lord your God require of you, but to fear the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, and to love him (Deuteronomy 10:12). At other times, mention is made only of the love of neighbor: this is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you (John 15:12).

7. Then, when he says for you shall not commit adultery, he proves his proposition:

   1. First, by induction.

   2. Second, with a syllogism, at the love of our neighbor.

8. Regarding the first point, he proceeds by induction, listing certain commandments that are fulfilled by love of neighbor. Because the three commandments of the first tablet are more directly ordered toward the love of God, he does not mention them, although they too are fulfilled in the love of neighbor, since the love of God is included in it. Instead, he lists the commandments of the second tablet, omitting only the affirmative commandment about honoring parents. This implies that we should pay to everyone whatever we owe.

9. He lists the negative commandments, which forbid a person from doing evil to his neighbor, for two reasons.

   1. First, because the negative commandments are more universal regarding both time and people. Regarding time, because the negative commandments are binding always and at every moment. For there is no time when one may steal or commit adultery. Affirmative commandments, on the other hand, are always binding, but not for every moment; they apply at certain times and places. For a person is not obligated to honor his parents every minute of the day, but at certain times and places. Negative commandments are also more universal regarding people, because no one may be harmed, whereas we are not capable of serving every other person individually.

   2. Second, because they are more obviously fulfilled through love of neighbor than are the affirmative ones. For a person who loves another is more concerned with refraining from harming him than with giving him benefits, which he is sometimes unable to give.

10. A person injures his neighbor in three ways: by action, by word, and by desire.

    He injures by action in three ways:

    1. First, against the neighbor's own person, and this is forbidden when he says, you shall not kill. This also forbids any injury against the neighbor’s person: no murderer has eternal life abiding in him (1 John 3:15).

    2. Second, against a person’s wife; and this is forbidden when he says, you shall not commit adultery. This also forbids fornication and any unlawful use of the genital organs: God will judge fornicators and adulterers (Hebrews 13:4).

    3. Third, against one’s external possessions, and this is forbidden when he says, you shall not steal. This also forbids any unjust taking of what belongs to another, either by force or by deceit: everyone who steals will be judged (Zechariah 5:3).

11. Injury by word against one's neighbor is forbidden when he says, you shall not bear false witness. This is forbidden not only in court but also outside of it, whether in the form of slander or insults: the false witness will not go unpunished, and one who speaks lies will not escape (Proverbs 19:5).

    Injury by desire alone against one's neighbor is forbidden when he says, you shall not covet your neighbor’s good. This also forbids coveting another’s wife: for I would not have known covetousness to be a sin, if the law had not said: you shall not covet (Romans 7:7).

12. These commandments are set forth in Exodus 20:17 and following. Having listed a number of commandments, he summarizes all others in one general command, saying, and if there be any other commandment, whether affirmative or negative, referring to God or to neighbor, it is comprised—that is, fulfilled—in this word: you shall love your neighbor as yourself. This is stated in Leviticus, where our text says, you shall love your friend as yourself (Leviticus 19:18).

13. When he says, your neighbor, this refers to all people and also to the good angels, as Augustine says. For a neighbor is anyone who shows mercy to another, as it says in Luke: which of these three, do you think, proved neighbor to the man who fell among robbers? He said: the one who showed mercy to him (Luke 10:36). And because a neighbor is neighbor to another neighbor, it follows that a person who is shown mercy by another is also said to be his neighbor. The good angels show mercy to us, and we should show mercy to all people and receive it from them when necessary. Hence, it is clear that the good angels and all people are our neighbors, because they either already possess the happiness toward which we are striving, or they are striving toward it with us.

    For this reason, it is clear that devils are not our neighbors and that we are not commanded to love them, because they are entirely excluded from the love of God and are included not among neighbors but among enemies.

14. The phrase as yourself does not refer to an equality of love, as though a person were bound to love his neighbor as much as himself. This would be against the order of charity, by which a person is obligated to care more for his own salvation than for that of others: he put love in order in me (Song of Solomon 2:4). Instead, it refers to a similarity of love, meaning that we should love our neighbor in a way that is similar to how we love ourselves.

    This is true in three ways:

    1. First, regarding the goal of love, namely, that we love ourselves and our neighbor for the sake of God.

    2. Second, regarding the form of love, namely, just as a person loves himself as someone who wills good for himself, so he should love his neighbor by willing good things for him. But one who loves his neighbor in order to gain some benefit or affection from him does not will good for his neighbor but wants to obtain a good for himself from his neighbor. This is the way a person is said to love irrational creatures, such as wine or a horse, namely, to use them.

    3. Third, regarding the effect of love, namely, that he should relieve his neighbor's need just as he relieves his own, and that he should do nothing unlawful out of love for his neighbor, just as he would not do for himself.

15. Then, when he says, the love of our neighbor works no evil, he clarifies his point with the following syllogism: one who loves his neighbor does no evil to him. But the aim of every commandment of the law is to refrain from evil. Therefore, one who loves his neighbor fulfills the law. That love of neighbor does no evil is gathered from 1 Corinthians: love does not work injury (1 Corinthians 13:4).

    However evil is understood here—whether as evil acts or omissions—it could refer not only to negative commandments but also to affirmative ones. But since love of neighbor includes love of God, it is understood that love of neighbor excludes evil against both one’s neighbor and God. Thus, even the commandments of the first tablet are included.

16. Finally, he draws the main intended conclusion, saying, therefore, love is the fulfillment of the law. This means the law is fulfilled and perfected by love: My abode is in the full assembly of the saints ; above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect harmony (Colossians 3:14).

After showing how a person should behave piously toward God by using his gifts properly and paying his neighbor what is owed, the Apostle now shows how one should act with integrity in regard to oneself.

In this regard, he does two things:

1. He presents the suitability of the time.
2. He exhorts them to virtuous works, beginning with the words, let us therefore cast off.

Concerning the first point, he does three things:

1. He mentions the suitability of the time.
2. He gives the reason, starting with, for now our salvation is nearer.
3. He uses a figure of speech, saying, the night is passed.

First, therefore, he says that we have stated what you should do. You should do this not only for the reasons already given but also because you are knowing this time. That is, you ought to consider the nature of the present moment, because as it says in Ecclesiastes, every matter has its time and way (Ecclesiastes 8:6). As Jeremiah says, even the stork in the heavens knows her times, and the turtledove, swallow, and crane keep the time of their coming; but my people know not the ordinance of the Lord (Jeremiah 8:7).

He shows what the time is suitable for when he says, because it is now the hour for us to rise from sleep. This is not a reference to the sleep of nature, which can mean death, as in 1 Thessalonians: we would not have you ignorant concerning those who are asleep (1 Thessalonians 4:13). Nor does it mean physical rest, as in John: if he is asleep, he will recover (John 11:12).

Neither is it a reference to the sleep of grace. This can mean the repose of eternal glory, as in a psalm: in peace I will lie down and sleep (Psalms 4:8). It can also mean the rest of contemplation in this life: I slept, but my heart was awake (Song of Solomon 5:2). Instead, it refers to the sleep of guilt, as in Ephesians: awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead (Ephesians 5:14), or to the sleep of negligence, as in Proverbs: how long will you lie there, O sluggard? (Proverbs 6:9).

Therefore, it is now the perfect time to wake from the sleep of guilt by repenting—awake after you have rested (Psalms 127:2)—and from the sleep of negligence by being careful to act properly: arise, O princes, oil the shield! (Isaiah 21:5); let not the hour for rising sadden you .

Then, when he says, for salvation, he gives the reason for what he had said, stating: for now our salvation is nearer than when we believed. The Apostle is referring to the salvation of eternal life, about which it is said: my salvation will be for ever (Isaiah 51:8).

A person is ordained to this salvation, first of all, by faith: he that believes and is baptized will be saved (Mark 16:16). But one draws closer and closer to it by good works and increased love: draw near to God and he will draw near to you (James 4:8).

This, therefore, is what the Apostle means: it is now the hour for us to rise from sleep, for now, as we have progressed through good works and increased love, our salvation—that is, eternal life, about which Isaiah says, my salvation will be forever (Isaiah 51:8)—is nearer than when we believed, meaning, than when we first received the faith.

This nearness can be understood in two ways.

1. The first is nearness in time. As holy people progress in good works, they draw closer to the end of this life, after which they will receive their reward.
2. The second is the nearness of preparation. Through increased love and the performance of good works, a person is prepared for that salvation: those who were ready went in with him to the marriage feast (Matthew 25:10).

But since the Church reads these words during Advent, they seem to refer to the salvation that Christ accomplished during his first coming. Accordingly, we can understand the Apostle as speaking on behalf of all believers since the beginning of the world. For as the time of Christ’s Incarnation drew near, and the predictions of the prophets grew in number, it could be said: our salvation, namely, Christ, is nearer than when we believed—that is, than when people in the very beginning started to believe in the future coming of Christ: soon my salvation will come and my deliverance be revealed (Isaiah 56:1).

These words can also be taken to refer to the time of mercy, when one begins to desire to depart from past sins. For at that time, a person is closer to salvation than previously, when he had a dead faith: resist the devil and he will flee from you. Draw near to God and he will draw near to you (James 4:7).

Then when he says, the night is passed, but the day is at hand, he uses a figure of speech to clarify his proposition. The meaning is that the entire time of the present life is compared to night on account of the darkness of ignorance with which this life is burdened. We are wrapped in darkness (Job 37:19). Isaiah says of this night: my soul yearns for you in the night (Isaiah 26:9).

But the state of future happiness is compared to day on account of God’s splendor, with which the saints are enlightened: the sun shall be no more your light by day, nor for brightness shall the moon give light to you by night, but the Lord will be your everlasting light (Isaiah 60:19). This day is referred to in a psalm: this is the day which the Lord has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it (Psalms 118:24).

It can also be understood that the state of guilt is being compared to night on account of the darkness of guilt. A psalm says about this darkness: they have neither knowledge nor understanding; they walk about in darkness (Psalms 82:5). About this night, Wisdom says: over those men alone heavy night was spread, an image of the darkness that was destined to receive them .

But the state of grace is called day on account of the light of spiritual understanding that the just have but the wicked lack: light dawns for the righteous (Psalms 97:11); the light of justice did not shine on us .

Or it can be understood that the time before Christ’s Incarnation is being compared to night, because it was not yet clear but was wrapped in darkness: we have the prophetic word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as to a lamp shining in a dark place (2 Peter 1:19). About this night it says in Isaiah: watchman, what of the night? (Isaiah 21:11). Hence, just as shadows appear at night, so during that time the practices of the law were in effect, but these were only a shadow of what is to come (Colossians 2:17).

But the time after Christ’s Incarnation is compared to day on account of the power of the spiritual sun in the world: but for you who fear my name, the sun of justice shall shine (Malachi 4:2). Hence the Lord says: I must work the works of him who sent me, while it is day (John 9:4); then he adds: as long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world.

The saying, the night is passed, can be taken to refer to any of the three nights mentioned. For a large part of the life span of those to whom he was writing was already mostly passed; the night of guilt had passed, as had the period of the law before Christ.

But it seems that the saying, but the day is at hand, must be understood as referring to the day of future glory, which was near for the believers in Christ to whom he was writing, although it had not yet arrived for them.

In keeping with the previous explanation, the time of Christ’s grace, although it had already arrived in the passage of time, is nonetheless described as drawing near through faith and devotion, just as it also says in Philippians: the Lord is near (Philippians 4:5), and in a psalm: the Lord is near to all who call upon him (Psalms 145:18).

It can also apply to those who begin to repent of their sins, for to such persons the day of grace is at hand.

Then when he says, let us, therefore, cast off, he concludes with an exhortation to an upright life.

First he gives the exhortation; second, he clarifies it, beginning with not in rioting.

Regarding an upright life, he touches on three things.

First is the removal of vices, as he concludes: If the night is passed, then let us cast off the works of darkness, because, as it says in Ecclesiastes, every matter has its time and way (Ecclesiastes 8:6). Hence, when the night is gone, the works of the night should cease.

Here the works of sin are called works of darkness for three reasons. First, because in themselves they lack the light of reason with which a person’s works should be illumined: the wise man has eyes in his head, but the fool walks in darkness (Ecclesiastes 2:14). Second, they are performed in the dark: the eye of the adulterer waits for the twilight (Job 24:15). Third, because by them a person is brought to darkness: cast them into the darkness outside (Matthew 22:13).

Second, he calls them to put on the virtues. It is as if he says: since the day is at hand, be dressed as is suitable for the day and put on the armor of light. This refers to the virtues, which are called armor because they protect us: put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil (Ephesians 6:11).

They are called the armor of light because they are decorated and perfected by the light of reason; hence it says in Proverbs: the path of the just is like the light of dawn (Proverbs 4:18). They are also called this because they are tested by light—he who does what is true comes to the light (John 3:21)—and because others are enlightened by virtuous acts: so let your light shine before men (Matthew 5:16).

Third, he urges them to use the virtues and make progress when he says, let us walk honestly, as in the day. For two things seem suited to the day. First is proper conduct, for in the day everyone tries to present himself properly before others, but not so in the night. Hence, it says in 1 Thessalonians: for those who sleep, sleep at night, and those who get drunk, get drunk at night. But since we belong to the day, let us be sober (1 Thessalonians 5:7). It also says in 1 Corinthians: let all things be done decently and in order (1 Corinthians 14:40).

Second, a person walks in the day, not at night; hence it says in John: if anyone walks in the night, he stumbles (John 11:10). Therefore, because it is day, we should walk, that is, advance from good to better: walk while you have the light (John 12:35).

Then when he says, not in rioting, he explains what he had said.

First, he explains how the works of darkness are to be cast off. These are sinful works, some of which he mentions. He begins with those that pertain to the corruption of the concupiscible appetite, whose corruption is intemperance regarding pleasures of touch and food. First, therefore, he excludes the intemperate use of food when he says, not in rioting: be not among wine bibbers or among gluttonous eaters of meat (Proverbs 23:20). This, of course, can be a mortal sin, because according to the law one is condemned to death for this sin. For it is said of a stubborn son: this our son is stubborn and rebellious: he is a glutton and drunkard. Then they shall stone him to death with stones (Deuteronomy 21:20–21).

One is said to spend time in reveling not if he eats with the magnificence appropriate to his status, as King Ahasuerus commanded a splendid banquet to be prepared in honor of Esther when she was made queen (Esther 2:18), but when he does this beyond the limits of his status, and especially if his main interest centers on this, like those about whom it is said: such persons do not serve our Lord Jesus Christ, but their own belly (Romans 16:18); their god is their belly (Philippians 3:19).

Second, he excludes intemperance in drink when he adds, and drunkenness. This refers to excessive drinking, which places a person outside the bounds of reason: wine created to make men glad, not drunk .

It should be noted that drunkenness is a mortal sin by its nature, namely when a person gets drunk on purpose, because he seems to prefer the pleasure of wine to the full use of reason. Hence it says in Isaiah: woe to those who are heroes at drinking wine, and valiant men in mixing strong drink (Isaiah 5:22). But if one gets drunk unintentionally—for example, because he was not aware of the strength of the wine or did not suspect he would get drunk on it—it is not a mortal sin, because he did not get drunk on purpose but accidentally. However, this cannot happen with persons who get drunk frequently. Hence, Augustine says in a sermon on Purgatory that drunkenness is a mortal sin if it occurs frequently. The Apostle thus significantly uses the plural number: not in riotings and drunkenness.

Third, he excludes intemperance in regard to bodily rest when he says, not in chambering, that is, not in excessive sleep, which he fittingly forbids after rioting and drunkenness, because it follows from them. Furthermore, there can be mortal sin in this, when for the sake of bodily rest and sleep, a person neglects what he ought to do and is inclined to commit evil deeds: woe to those who devise wickedness and work evil upon their beds! (Micah 2:1).

The Apostle’s words can also refer to the accessories of lust. Hence the harlot is quoted as saying: I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon (Proverbs 7:17). Because you went up to your father’s bed, and did defile his couch (Genesis 49:4).

Fourth, he fittingly excludes intemperance regarding sex when he says, and impurities. This refers to sexual acts, which are called shameful because they do not avoid what is especially disgraceful and worthy of shame. This is for two reasons. First, all pleasures of touch—gluttony and lust—are common to us and animals, so that one who pursues them excessively becomes like an animal: Do not become like the horse and the mule, who have no understanding (Psalms 32:9). Second, it is especially in sexual acts that a person’s reason is so totally absorbed by pleasure that he cannot understand, as the Philosopher says in the Ethics. Hence it says in Hosea, harlotry and drunkenness and wine take away the understanding (Hosea 4:11), and in Revelation, they did not repent over their licentiousness and fornication and uncleanness (Revelation 9:21).

Then he excludes those sins which pertain to the corruption of the irascible appetite when he says, not in contention. Contention, as Ambrose says, is an attack on the truth, performed with confident shouting. It is also possible that these words forbid all quarreling, not only in words but also in deeds, which very frequently begin with words: it is an honor for a man to keep aloof from strife (Proverbs 20:3).

Contention generally arises from envy; therefore he adds, and envy. Hence it says in James: where jealousy and selfish ambitions exist, there will be disorder and every vile practice (James 3:16).

Second, he explains how we should put on the armor of light, saying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, in whom all the virtues were present most abundantly, according to Isaiah: seven women shall take hold of one man (Isaiah 4:1).

We put on Jesus Christ, first, by receiving the sacrament: all you who have been baptized in Christ have put on Christ (Galatians 3:27).

Second, by imitation: Stripping yourselves of the old man with his deeds, and putting on the new (Colossians 3:9); and put on the new man, who according to God is created in justice and holiness of truth (Ephesians 4:24). For a person who imitates Christ is said to put on Christ, because, just as a person is covered by a garment and is seen under its color, so in one who imitates Christ the works of Christ appear. Therefore, we put on the armor of light when we put on Christ.

Third, he explains what it means to walk honestly, as in the day, when he says, make no provision for the flesh in its concupiscences. The beauty of proper conduct lies in the fact that a person does not prefer the flesh to the spirit, but the spirit to the flesh: we are not debtors to the flesh, to live according to the flesh (Romans 8:12).

It should be noted that he does not say, make no provision for the flesh, in an absolute sense, because everyone is bound to take care of the body to sustain its nature: no one hates his own flesh, but nourishes and cherishes it (Ephesians 5:29). Instead, he adds, in its concupiscences, so that we do not follow the disordered desires of the flesh: walk by the Spirit and do not gratify the desires of the flesh (Galatians 5:16).